Diffuse alveolar haemorrhage as a rare complication of antiphospholipid syndrome.

Diffuse alveolar haemorrhage (DAH) is a rare complication of antiphospholipid syndrome. With a mortality rate of 46%, early diagnosis and management remain an ongoing challenge. Case reports are limited, and management guidelines are not yet definitive. In this case report, we present a 43-year-old male with DAH who required high-dose oral steroids, intravenous methylprednisolone cyclophosphamide and rituximab over 18 months to control life-threatening episodes of pulmonary bleeding.

Primary membranous glomerulonephritis with negative serum PLA2R in haemophilia A successfully managed with rituximab - case report and review of the literature.

BACKGROUND: Hepatitis C virus (HCV) and human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) cause a wide range of glomerular pathologies. In people with haemophilia, transfusion-associated infections with these viruses are common and definitive pathological diagnosis in this population is complicated by the difficulty of safely obtaining a renal biopsy. Membranous nephropathy (MN) is a common cause of adult onset nephrotic syndrome occurring in both primary and secondary forms. Primary MN is associated with podocyte autoantibodies, predominantly against phospholipase A2 receptor (PLA2R). Secondary disease is often associated with viral infection; however, infrequently with HIV or HCV. Distinguishing these entities from each other and other viral glomerular disease is vital as treatment strategies are disparate. CASE PRESENTATION: We present the case of a 48-year-old man with moderate haemophilia A and well-controlled transfusion-associated HCV and HIV coinfection who presented with sudden onset nephrotic range proteinuria. Renal biopsy demonstrated grade two membranous nephropathy with associated negative serum PLA2R testing. Light and electron microscopic appearances were indeterminant of a primary or secondary cause. Given his extremely stable co-morbidities, treatment with rituximab and subsequent angiotensin receptor blockade was initiated for suspected primary MN and the patient had sustained resolution in proteinuria over the following 18 months. Subsequent testing demonstrated PLA2R positive glomerular immunohistochemistry despite multiple negative serum results. CONCLUSIONS: Pursuing histological diagnosis is important in complex cases of MN as the treatment strategies between primary and secondary vary significantly. Serum PLA2R testing alone may be insufficient in the presence of multiple potential causes of secondary MN.

Evolution of HIV-1 Surveillance Drug Resistance Mutations Over 10 Years in New South Wales, Australia.

New South Wales has the greatest burden of HIV in Australia, with 2012 and 2013 recording the highest rates of new diagnoses in 20 years. Concurrently, there has been significant changes in antiretroviral treatments and testing paradigms. We compiled a statewide resistance database to characterize changes in HIV-1 resistance mutations over time. Genotypic antiretroviral resistance testing (GART) was performed on request at three reference laboratories using commercial and in-house methods. In total, 7629 HIV-1 polymerase sequences obtained from GART from 2004 to 2013 were retrospectively collated, reformatted, de-identified, and analyzed using Stanford HIVdb program 7.0 and the 2009 World Health Organization (WHO) surveillance drug resistance mutations (SDRMs). Analyses were performed on subgroups of known treatment naives, treatment experienced, and seroconverters. There has been a decrease in overall rates of prevalent drug resistance mutations from 57.8% in 2004 to 21% in 2013. Dual and triple class resistance mutations have decreased from 32.7% in 2004 to 5.8% in 2013 and 16.4% to 1.2%, respectively. In treatment-naive individuals (n = 450), the frequency of protease inhibitor (PI) mutations remains low at 2.7%. In seroconverters, rates of transmitted drug resistance (TDR) are 6.6%, 3%, 3%, and 1.5% for overall, PI, non-nucleoside reverse transcription inhibitor (NNRTI), and NRTI, respectively. In treatment experienced, rates remain stable with 36.0%, 18.9%, 29.1%, and 6.4% for overall, NNRTI, NRTI, and PI mutations. The most common mutations in treatment experienced occurred at position M184, T215 (NRTI); K103 (NNRTI); I54 (PI). Apparent decreases in prevalent SDRMs can be attributed to changes in GART testing indications over time. In treatment-naive and -experienced subgroups, rates have been stable with low rates of TDR in seroconverters.

The neuro-otology of Susac syndrome.

OBJECTIVE: We characterised the clinical and neuro-otological characteristics of patients with Susac syndrome. METHODS: The medical records of 30 patients with Susac syndrome were reviewed for details of their clinical presentation and course, neuro-otological symptoms, investigation results including audiology and vestibular function tests, treatment and outcomes. RESULTS: Our findings demonstrate that 29 of our 30 patients with Susac syndrome developed neuro-otological symptoms such as hearing loss, disequilibrium, tinnitus or vertigo during their disease course. Hearing loss was the most common neuro-otological symptom occurring in 93% of patients. A rising configuration of low-frequency greater than the high-frequency sensorineural hearing loss was the most characteristic finding on audiological testing (37% of reviewed audiograms). Disproportionately poor speech discrimination was identified in 20% of cases, and one case demonstrated a retrocochlear pattern on electrophysiological testing. Four patients required hearing aids and a further two patients required a cochlear implant due to severe hearing loss. Two out of two treated patients had improvements in hearing after the prompt administration of corticosteroids, indicating the potential for recoverable hearing loss if relapses are treated early. Effects on vestibular function were variable in ten patients who were tested, with most showing preservation of function despite significant hearing loss. CONCLUSIONS: Neuro-otological symptoms in Susac syndrome are almost universal. In the correct clinical context, a rising configuration of low to high-frequency sensorineural hearing loss should prompt consideration of Susac syndrome. Treatment of inner ear symptoms in Susac syndrome requires further research as early immunotherapy may be beneficial.

Team-based learning (TBL): a community of practice.

BACKGROUND: Rapid changes in medical practice have a large impact on the demands faced by educators in preparing students for future participation in a multifaceted healthcare workforce. Competencies required by today's medical graduates encompass the ability to effectively collaborate, communicate and problem solve. The learning needs of medical students have also changed over time. Today's medical students are highly interconnected, enjoying teamwork and collaborative practice, and desire continuous, explicit feedback. They want structured learning activities, with clear expectations, and enjoy a sense of accomplishment on their achievements. The conflation of these issues has seen many medical schools adopt the model of Team-based learning (TBL). Using the conceptual framework of communities of practice, we sought to qualitatively explore students' and teachers' experience of TBL in Year 1 of a graduate entry medical program. METHODS: Convenience sampling was used to select 169/350 (48%) Year 1 students who completed three TBL sessions. Each TBL session was facilitated by three senior clinicians. Following participation in the TBLs, students were invited to attend focus groups, and all facilitators (n = 9) were invited to attend interviews. A coding framework was developed to code the entire dataset, using the theoretical lens of communities of practice. RESULTS: 34/169 (20%) of students attended focus groups. Three facilitators (3/9, 33%) were interviewed. Students and facilitators felt the structure and organisation of TBL made students accountable for their learning and team contributions. The combined expertise and clinical experience of facilitators, with immediate feedback helped groups to work both independently and collaboratively. Facilitators found working with their peers in the TBLs to be a rewarding experience. CONCLUSIONS: The community of practice found in the TBL classes, provided an enriching and rewarding learning environment that motivated students to build on their basic knowledge and apply what had been learnt. The interactions of experienced, senior clinicians as facilitators, sharing their expertise within a clinical context, prompted effective student engagement in learning and understanding. Our change in curriculum design and pedagogy will assist in preparing medical students for demands of the increasingly complex healthcare systems in which they will work.

Programmed cell death-1 contributes to the establishment and maintenance of HIV-1 latency.

OBJECTIVE: In HIV-infected individuals on antiretroviral therapy (ART), latent HIV is enriched in CD4 T cells expressing immune checkpoint molecules, in particular programmed cell death-1 (PD-1). We therefore assessed the effect of blocking PD-1 on latency, both in vitro and in vivo. METHODS: HIV latency was established in vitro following coculture of resting CD4+ T cells with myeloid dendritic cells. Expression of PD-1 was quantified by flow cytometry, and latency assessed in sorted PD-1high and PD-1low/-nonproliferating CD4+ memory T cells. The role of PD-1 in the establishment of latency was determined by adding anti-PD-1 (pembrolizumab) to cocultures before and after infection. In addition, a single infusion of anti-PD-1 (nivolumab) was administered to an HIV-infected individual on ART with metastatic melanoma, and cell-associated HIV DNA and RNA, and plasma HIV RNA were quantified. RESULTS: HIV latency was significantly enriched in PD-1high compared with PD-1low/- nonproliferating, CD4 memory T cells. Sorting for an additional immune checkpoint molecule, T-cell immunoglobulin domain and mucin domain-3, in combination with PD-1, further enriched for latency. Blocking PD-1 prior to HIV infection, in vitro, resulted in a modest but significant decrease in latently infected cells in all donors (n = 6). The administration of anti-PD-1 to an HIV-infected individual on ART resulted in a significant increase in cell-associated HIV RNA in CD4 T cells, without significant changes in HIV DNA or plasma HIV RNA, consistent with reversal of HIV latency. CONCLUSION: PD-1 contributes to the establishment and maintenance of HIV latency and should be explored as a target, in combination with other immune checkpoint molecules, to reverse latency.

Team-based learning (TBL) in the medical curriculum: better than PBL?

BACKGROUND: Internationally, medical schools have long used a variety of approaches to develop hybrid Problem based learning (PBL) curricula. However, Team-based learning (TBL), has gained recent popularity in medical education. TBL maintains the advantages of small group teaching and learning, but in contrast to Problem-based learning (PBL), does not require large numbers of tutors. In 2016, TBL was introduced to Year 1 of the Sydney Medical Program (SMP).This study sought to compare students' perceptions of using TBL in place of PBL. METHODS: Year 1 students (n = 169) completed three PBL and three TBL sessions during one of the following teaching blocks: Musculoskeletal (n = 56), Respiratory (n = 59) or Cardiovascular (n = 54). Student feedback following completion of each block of teaching was collected by questionnaire, using closed and open ended items. Data were analysed using descriptive statistics and thematic analysis. RESULTS: In total, 144/169 (85%) of participants completed a questionnaire regarding PBL, and 152/169 (90%) completed a similar questionnaire regarding TBL. The students found positive aspects of their TBL experience to include the smaller group size, the use of readiness assurance tests, immediate feedback from senior clinicians, and time efficiency. In PBL, students reported that variable expertise of tutors; limited direction; and large group size hindered their learning. CONCLUSIONS: Overwhelmingly, students preferred TBL over PBL, as the optimal teaching strategy. Students found the structure and format of the TBL sessions more conducive to learning, engagement and participation than PBL sessions. Although the use of TBL required an instructional approach, needing direction from the tutor, it remained student-centred, generating a range of positive outcomes. Study results provide confidence to change from PBL to TBL within Year 1 and Year 2 of the SMP in 2017.

Outcomes of pulmonary arterial hypertension therapy in Australia: is monotherapy adequate?

BACKGROUND: In Australia, government-subsidised treatment of pulmonary arterial hypertension (PAH) is limited to monotherapy. Recent international guidelines advocate that initial combination therapy be considered for all symptomatic PAH patients. AIM: To characterise 'real-life' outcomes in PAH patients initiated on monotherapy. METHODS: We performed a retrospective analysis of 100 consecutive PAH patients at a single centre who were commenced on monotherapy for PAH between 2004 and 2015. The composite clinical end-point of 'treatment failure' was prospectively defined as (i) >15% fall in 6-min walk distance (6MWD) on follow up, (ii) physician judgement of inadequate treatment response, (iii) adverse drug effect requiring cessation and (iv) death or transplantation. RESULTS: At initiation of therapy, mean age was 54 ± 18 years, and underlying diagnoses included idiopathic (36%), connective tissue disease-associated (37%) and congenital heart disease-associated-PAH (25%). Baseline 6MWD was 360 ± 140 m, and 75% were in either the New York Heart Association functional classes III or IV. Over a median follow up of 38 months (interquartile range 20-67), 62% of the subjects met the criteria for a clinical failure event. Median time to monotherapy failure was 24 months (95% confidence interval 14-34), with death or transplantation being the most common clinical failure event. Estimated 1-, 3- and 5-year survival rates from time of treatment initiation were 92, 75 and 66%. CONCLUSION: The majority of patients failed initial monotherapy therapy within 2 years of treatment initiation. Broader access to approved PAH agents is needed to enable combination therapy in line with evidence-based international guidelines.

A national study of the molecular epidemiology of HIV-1 in Australia 2005-2012.

INTRODUCTION: Rates of new HIV-1 diagnoses are increasing in Australia, with evidence of an increasing proportion of non-B HIV-1 subtypes reflecting a growing impact of migration and travel. The present study aims to define HIV-1 subtype diversity patterns and investigate possible HIV-1 transmission networks within Australia. METHODS: The Australian Molecular Epidemiology Network (AMEN) HIV collaborating sites in Western Australia, South Australia, Victoria, Queensland and western Sydney (New South Wales), provided baseline HIV-1 partial pol sequence, age and gender information for 4,873 patients who had genotypes performed during 2005-2012. HIV-1 phylogenetic analyses utilised MEGA V6, with a stringent classification of transmission pairs or clusters (bootstrap ≥98%, genetic distance ≤1.5% from at least one other sequence in the cluster). RESULTS: HIV-1 subtype B represented 74.5% of the 4,873 sequences (WA 59%, SA 68.4%, w-Syd 73.8%, Vic 75.6%, Qld 82.1%), with similar proportion of transmission pairs and clusters found in the B and non-B cohorts (23% vs 24.5% of sequences, p = 0.3). Significantly more subtype B clusters were comprised of ≥3 sequences compared with non-B clusters (45.0% vs 24.0%, p = 0.021) and significantly more subtype B pairs and clusters were male-only (88% compared to 53% CRF01_AE and 17% subtype C clusters). Factors associated with being in a cluster of any size included; being sequenced in a more recent time period (p<0.001), being younger (p<0.001), being male (p = 0.023) and having a B subtype (p = 0.02). Being in a larger cluster (>3) was associated with being sequenced in a more recent time period (p = 0.05) and being male (p = 0.008). CONCLUSION: This nationwide HIV-1 study of 4,873 patient sequences highlights the increased diversity of HIV-1 subtypes within the Australian epidemic, as well as differences in transmission networks associated with these HIV-1 subtypes. These findings provide epidemiological insights not readily available using standard surveillance methods and can inform the development of effective public health strategies in the current paradigm of HIV prevention in Australia.

Cerebral toxoplasmosis in a patient with myasthenia gravis and thymoma with immunodeficiency/Good's syndrome: a case report.

BACKGROUND: Patients with thymoma with immunodeficiency (TWI)/Good's syndrome characteristically have evidence of combined immunodeficiency including low or absent B-cells, hypogammaglobulinemia and defects in T-cell mediated immunity. These patients can present with common or opportunistic infections. CASE PRESENTATION: A 54-year-old female was diagnosed with cerebral toxoplasmosis. This occurred on a background of metastatic thymoma previously treated with chemotherapy and myasthenia gravis (MG) treated with mycophenolate mofetil, monthly intravenous immunoglobulin (IVIG) and pyridostigmine. She reported recurrent herpes zoster infection. The patient had clinical and radiological progression of cerebral infection despite completing standard induction and maintenance therapy with sulfadiazine and pyrimethamine. Investigations found a complete absence of B-cells and evidence for hypogammaglobulinemia which, together with evidence of defects in T-cell mediated immunity and thymoma, lead to a diagnosis of TWI/Good's Syndrome. The patient has undergone prolonged high-dose therapy for toxoplasmosis and a reduction in immunosuppression with no evidence of recurrent toxoplasmosis or flare of MG. CONCLUSIONS: TWI/Good's Syndrome should be suspected in patients with thymoma and recurrent, persistent or unusual infections. If suspected serum immunoglobulins and lymphocyte subsets should be measured. These patients may need closer monitoring, higher dose and prolonged treatment of infections, and weaning of concurrent immunosuppression may be considered.

Episodic fevers and vasodilatory shock mimicking urosepsis in a patient with HIV-associated multicentric Castleman's Disease: a case report.

BACKGROUND: Multicentric Castleman's disease (MCD) is a pre-malignancy that presents with lymphadenopathy and features of systemic inflammation. Human immunodeficiency virus (HIV)-associated MCD is associated with human herpesvirus-8 (HHV-8) infection. If untreated MCD has a relapsing and remitting course that is eventually fatal. CASE PRESENTATION: A 67-year-old man had six hospital admissions over 20 months characterised by fever, urinary frequency and CRP >100 mg/L. The final admission was complicated by hypotension requiring intensive care unit admission and ionotropic support. His history included HIV and Hepatitis B virus (HBV) co-infection on suppressive therapy. Each presentation was managed as presumed urosepsis with use of empirical antibiotics, however numerous blood and urine cultures failed to identify a pathogen. A bone-marrow aspirate and trephine found no evidence of haematological malignancy. A positron emission tomography scan found active lymph nodes, one of which was biopsied and found to contain the plasma-cell variant of Castleman's disease. Ultimately the cause for the recurrent presentations was attributed to progressive MCD. The patient received rituximab monotherapy and has had no further related admissions. CONCLUSIONS: MCD should be considered in patients with chronic HIV infection presenting with recurrent sepsis-like episodes and/or vasodilatory shock, particularly if no pathogen is identified or lymphadenopathy is evident.

Behçet's disease presenting as a peripheral vestibulopathy.

Prolonged acute spontaneous vertigo can be secondary to acute vestibular neuritis or posterior circulation ischaemia. We present a 66-year-old man who first developed an acute vestibular syndrome with profound unilateral hearing loss 34 years ago. First treated as vestibular neuritis, he subsequently developed manifestations of Behçet's disease, including mouth ulcers, genital ulcers and erythema nodosum over a period of 10 years. Subsequently, sudden sensorineural hearing loss affecting his only hearing ear responded to immunomodulation, confirming an autoimmune cause for the audiovestibular symptoms. This report serves as a reminder that vestibular neuritis seldom causes hearing loss; ischaemic, infective and autoimmune causes should be sought when an acute vestibular syndrome is accompanied by hearing impairment.

Pentoxifylline-induced drug rash with eosinophilia and systemic symptoms (DRESS) in a patient with caffeine intolerance.

BACKGROUND: Drug rash with eosinophilia and systemic symptoms (DRESS) is a severe drug reaction characterised by rash, eosinophilia and systemic involvement. MAIN OBSERVATIONS: We report a case of DRESS induced by pentoxifylline used for the treatment of severe alcoholic hepatitis, in a patient with longstanding caffeine intolerance. A history of intolerance to caffeine and other methylxanthines is listed as a contraindication to the use of pentoxifylline, yet this precaution is not mentioned in alcoholic hepatitis treatment guidelines. CONCLUSIONS: Prescribers should always seek a history of intolerance to caffeine and related compounds prior to use of pentoxifylline, as severe life threatening reactions can occur.

Autoimmunity in primary antibody deficiency is associated with protein tyrosine phosphatase nonreceptor type 22 (PTPN22).

BACKGROUND: The 1858T allele of protein tyrosine phosphatase nonreceptor type 22 (PTPN22; R620W) exhibits one of the strongest and most consistent associations with sporadic autoimmune disease. Although autoimmunity is common in patients with primary antibody deficiency (PAD), it remains unknown whether its pathogenesis is similar when it arises in this context compared with in immunocompetent patients. OBJECTIVE: We set out to determine whether the 1858T allele of PTPN22 was associated with PAD or with autoimmunity in the context of PAD. METHODS: We genotyped rs2476601 (g.1858C>T), a single nucleotide polymorphism encoding substitution of arginine for tryptophan in PTPN22 (R620W), in 193 patients with PAD and 148 control subjects from an Australian cohort. We also performed a subgroup analysis according to the presence of autoimmunity and B-cell phenotypes. RESULTS: C/T and T/T PTPN22 genotypes were more common in patients with PAD than in the matched control subjects (C/T, 18.1% vs 9.5%; T/T, 1.04% vs 0.6%). The T allele was associated with an increased risk of PAD relative to control subjects (odds ratio, 2.10; 95% CI, 1.11-4.00). The distribution of genotypes in control subjects was similar to those reported previously and did not deviate significantly from Hardy-Weinberg equilibrium. We found a strong association between the 1858T allele and PAD with coexistent autoimmune diseases. In patients with PAD and autoimmunity, 16 (43.2%) of 37 had at least one T allele of PTPN22 compared with 27 (17.3%) of 156 with the C/C genotype (P=.0014; odds ratio, 3.64; 95% CI, 1.68-7.88). We found no evidence that this effect was mediated by enrichment of CD21low B cells. CONCLUSION: The 1858T PTPN22 allele is strongly associated with autoimmunity in patients with PAD.