Handwriting fluency, latency, and kinematic in Portuguese writing system: Pilot study with school children from 3rd to 5th grade.

Studies have referred to the interaction between orthographic and motor aspects during the production of handwriting. However, studies with Brazilian Portuguese are still lacking. Hence, the aim of this study was to compare orthographic regularity, based on the Portuguese writing system, in high (HF) and low (LF) frequency words, in relation to latency and kinematic variables in students from the 3rd to the 5th grade of elementary school. This is a cross-sectional pilot study, with a convenience sample of 95 children participated in this study, from 3rd to 5th grade level attending a state elementary school. All were submitted to the following procedures of computerized evaluation of handwriting and submitted to the task of writing 15 HF and 15 LF words, selected according to the frequency criteria and classified according writing coding rule. Results indicated that for HF words, there was a decrease in writing and disfluencies production time, for all coding rules, from 3rd to 5th grade. However, for LF words, the more unpredictable orthographic affect production duration time, movement fluency, and students became more dependent on the use of gaze to check spelling aspects. This study revealed that lexical and sub-lexical activation affected motor production. For HF and LF words, lexical and sublexical process favored motor programming. However, for LF words, despite the maturation and school progression for the motor planes, there was an increase in latency time and in the need to search for word information, measured by the gaze variable for words with greater irregularity. This study has provided some evidence that linguistic variables such as orthographic regularity and word familiarity affect handwriting performance in Brazilian Portuguese written language.

Use of technological tools to evaluate handwriting production of the alphabet and pseudocharacters by Brazilian students.

OBJECTIVE: This study aimed to characterize and compare the handwriting performance of Brazilian students from the 3rd to the 5th grade level of elementary school I with a computerized instrument that allowed the real performance to be observed during the execution of the handwriting. METHODS: Ninety-five students, aged 8 years to 11 years and 11 months, were assigned the production tasks of handwriting letters and pseudocharacters to assess the variables of latency, letter duration production and movement fluency. The stimulus presentation and the analysis of the movements were analyzed by Ductus software. RESULTS: In relation to the writing duration, latency and fluency of the alphabet letters, there was a diminution of values from the 3rd to 5th grade. For the comparison between alphabet and pseudocharacter latency, the results indicated a difference between the alphabet letter and its corresponding pseudocharacter, with greater latency for the pseudocharacter. This finding suggests that a motor sequence has not been established, so it cannot be assumed that the production of the alphabet letters was automatic. CONCLUSION: The results of this study make it possible to verify the interaction failures between the central and peripheral processes, with progression between the 3rd and 5th grade. It also highlights the influence of the lack of systematized teaching of the tracing of letters for Brazilian students since proficiency in calligraphy is critically linked to academic performance. These findings provide a great contribution to Brazilian educational psychology and reflect both educational and clinical practices.

Use of technological tools to evaluate handwriting production of the alphabet and pseudocharacters by Brazilian students

OBJECTIVE: This study aimed to characterize and compare the handwriting performance of Brazilian students from the 3rd to the 5th grade level of elementary school I with a computerized instrument that allowed the real performance to be observed during the execution of the handwriting. METHODS: Ninety-five students, aged 8 years to 11 years and 11 months, were assigned the production tasks of handwriting letters and pseudocharacters to assess the variables of latency, letter duration production and movement fluency. The stimulus presentation and the analysis of the movements were analyzed by Ductus software. RESULTS: In relation to the writing duration, latency and fluency of the alphabet letters, there was a diminution of values from the 3rd to 5th grade. For the comparison between alphabet and pseudocharacter latency, the results indicated a difference between the alphabet letter and its corresponding pseudocharacter, with greater latency for the pseudocharacter. This finding suggests that a motor sequence has not been established, so it cannot be assumed that the production of the alphabet letters was automatic. CONCLUSION: The results of this study make it possible to verify the interaction failures between the central and peripheral processes, with progression between the 3rd and 5th grade. It also highlights the influence of the lack of systematized teaching of the tracing of letters for Brazilian students since proficiency in calligraphy is critically linked to academic performance. These findings provide a great contribution to Brazilian educational psychology and reflect both educational and clinical practices.

Comparison of Reading Performance in Students with Developmental Dyslexia by Sex / Comparação por Sexo do Desempenho em Leitura de Escolares com Dislexia do Desenvolvimento / Comparación por Sexo del Desempeño en Lectura de los Estudiantes con Dislexia del Desarrollo

Abstract: This study aims to compare the performance of male and female dyslexic students in tests of reading words and pseudowords, and comprehension of sentences and texts. The participants were forty-eight students with dyslexia, attending 3rd grade to 5th grade of elementary school (age range 8 to 12 years old), from public and private schools, divided into: GI - 14 girls and GII - 34 boys. The researchers applied tests of Reading process assessment: reading of words, reading of pseudowords, comprehension of sentences, and comprehension of texts. The results showed evidence of difference by sex in reading of low frequency words and sentence comprehension. It was concluded that the discussion on the difference between dyslexic students by sex could be relevant in the educational context, as among the five variables, two provided information for promoting further discussion on the subject, highlighting the importance of further studies.

Resumo: Este estudo objetiva comparar o desempenho dos escolares com dislexia entre os sexos feminino e masculino em provas de leitura de palavras e pseudopalavras, de compreensão de orações e textos. Participaram 48 escolares com dislexia do 3º ao 5º ano do Ensino Fundamental (8 a 12 anos de idade) de escola pública e particular divididos em: GI - 14 meninas e GII - 34 meninos. Foram aplicadas provas de avaliação de leitura de palavras e pseudopalavras, compreensão de orações e textos, das Provas de avaliação dos processos de leitura. Os resultados indicaram evidência de diferença por sexo nas provas de leitura de palavras de baixa frequência e compreensão de orações. Concluiu-se que a discussão sobre a diferença entre os escolares com dislexia por sexo pode ser relevante no contexto educacional, pois dentre as cinco variáveis estudadas, duas forneceram informações para levantar maior discussão sobre o tema, destacando a importância de mais estudos.

Resumen: Este estudio tuvo por objetivo comparar el desempeño de los estudiantes con dislexia entre los sexos femenino y masculino en las pruebas de lectura y comprensión lectora. Participaron 48 estudiantes con dislexia del 3º al 5º grado de la Enseñanza Fundamental (8 a 12 años de edad) de escuelas pública y privada, divididos en: GI - 14 niñas y GII - 34 niños. Fueron aplicadas pruebas de evaluación de lectura de palabras y pseudopalavras, comprensión de oraciones y textos, de las Pruebas de Evaluación de los procesos lectores. Los resultados indican evidencia de diferencia por sexo en las pruebas de lectura de palabras de baja frecuencia y comprensión de oraciones. Se concluyó que la discusión acerca de la diferencia entre los estudiantes con dislexia por sexo puede ser relevante en el contexto educativo, pues de las cinco variables estudiadas, dos proporcionan informaciones para alzar discusiones adicionales sobre el tema, destacando la importancia de mayores estudios.

The opinion of parents and teachers of students with learning disorders regarding executive function skills / Opinião de pais e de professores de escolares com transtornos de aprendizagem quanto às habilidades de funções executivas

ABSTRACT Purpose: to compare the opinion of parents and teachers of students with learning disorders, regarding executive function skills. Methods: a cross-sectional cohort study, involving 39 students, boys and girls, with a multi-disciplinary diagnosis of learning disorders. Participants in the age range 8 to 11 years and 11 months were enrolled in Grades 3 to 5 of Primary Education I. The Behavior Rating Inventory of Executive Function (BRIEF) questionnaire, comprising one questionnaire for the parents and another for the teachers, was applied. The aim was to characterize the behavioral aspects of executive function in the school and home environments. Results: data were statistically analyzed using non-parametric tests and significant differences in the answers provided by parents and teachers in the organization scale were found. By comparing the answers given by parents and teachers, significant differences were seen in the emotional control, planning/organization, material organization and monitoring scales. Conclusion: based on the results of this study, one concludes that there are different perceptions of impaired executive function among parents and teachers of students presented with learning disorders. Parental answers pointed to more difficulties than those provided by the teachers.

RESUMO Objetivo: comparar a opinião de pais e de professores de escolares com transtornos de aprendizagem em habilidades de função executiva. Métodos: estudo de coorte transversal. Participaram deste estudo 39 escolares com diagnóstico interdisciplinar de transtornos de aprendizagem, de ambos os sexos, com faixa etária entre 8 anos e 11 anos e 11 meses, do 3º ao 5º ano do Ensino Público Fundamental I. Como procedimento foi utilizado o Behavior Rating Inventory of Executive Function (BRIEF), composto de dois questionários, sendo um para o preenchimento pelos pais e um para professores, visando à caracterização de aspectos comportamentais da função executiva em ambientes escolar e em casa. Resultados: os resultados foram analisados estatisticamente utilizando testes não paramétricos. Foi possível observar diferença significativa entre as respostas preenchidas pelos pais dos escolares em relação à escala de organização. Na comparação entre os questionários preenchidos pelos pais e pelos professores houve diferença significativa para as escalas de controle emocional, planejamento/organização, organização de materiais e monitoramento. Conclusão: houve diferentes percepções do comprometimento das funções executivas para os pais e para os professores dos escolares com transtornos de aprendizagem. As dificuldades foram indicadas predominantemente pelos pais comparativamente aos professores.

Desempenho de escolares com transtorno do déficit de atenção com hiperatividade em habilidades metalinguísticas, leitura e compreensão leitora / Performance of students with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder in metalinguistic skills, reading and reading comprehension

RESUMO Objetivo: caracterizar e comparar o desempenho de escolares com Transtorno do Déficit de Atenção com Hiperatividade em habilidades metalinguísticas, leitura e compreensão leitora, com escolares de bom desempenho acadêmico. Métodos: participaram deste estudo 30 escolares do Ensino Fundamental I, de ambos os gêneros, na faixa etária de 8 anos a 12 anos e 11 meses de idade, divididos em dois grupos: Grupo I, composto por 15 escolares com diagnóstico de Transtorno do Déficit de Atenção com Hiperatividade; Grupo II, composto por 15 escolares com bom desempenho acadêmico. Os escolares foram pareados em relação à idade, à escolaridade e ao gênero e foram submetidos à aplicação das provas de habilidades metalinguísticas, de leitura e de compreensão de leitura. Resultados: foi possível verificar desempenho inferior do GI em habilidades de identificação de fonema inicial e final, subtração e adição de sílabas e de fonemas, bem como de segmentação de fonemas. O desempenho do GI também foi inferior ao do GII em provas de leitura e de repetição de não palavras. Não houve diferença estatisticamente significante entre o desempenho dos grupos em compreensão leitora. Conclusão: os escolares com Transtorno do Déficit de Atenção com Hiperatividade em comparação com grupo controle apresentaram desempenho inferior na decodificação leitora e nas tarefas metalinguísticas consideradas mais complexas, as quais exigem retenção, análise e recuperação de informação. Na compreensão de leitura ambos os grupos apresentaram classificação de desempenho inferior com resultados semelhantes.

ABSTRACT Purpose: to characterize and compare the performance of students with Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder in metalinguistic skills, reading and reading comprehension in students with good academic performance. Methods: 30 participants from primary schools, of both genders, aged from 8 to 12 years and 11 months, divided into two groups: Group I consisted of 15 students diagnosed with Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder and Group II composed of 15 students with good academic performance. The students were matched byage, grade level and gender. The students were submitted to Metalinguistic Skills Tests, Reading Protocol and Reading Comprehension Tests. Results: differences were found between Group I and Group II for skills regarding initial and final phonemic identification, syllable and phonemes subtraction and addition, as well as phonemic segmentation. The performance of Group I was also inferior than that of Group II, in Reading protocol and repetition of non-words. There was no statistically significant difference between the groups in reading comprehension performance. Conclusion: students with Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder presented inferior performance in relation to reading protocol and in more complex metalinguistic skills, which required retention, analysis and information retrieval, when compared to the control group. In regard to reading comprehension, both groups presented lower performance, with similar results.

Desempenho de escolares em provas de processo de identificação de letras e do processo léxico / Students' performance in letter identification and lexical process tests

RESUMO Objetivo: caracterizar, comparar e correlacionar o desempenho de escolares brasileiros do 2º ao 5º ano do Ensino Fundamental do ensino público e particular em provas de avaliação do processo de identificação de letras e do processo léxico. Métodos: participaram 262 escolares do Ensino Fundamental (público= 122, particular= 140), do interior paulista: Ensino público - G1 (2º ano, n=24); G2 (3º ano, n=33); G3 (4º ano, n= 31); G4 (5º ano, n=34) e Ensino particular - G5 (2º ano, n=37); G6 (3º ano, n=34); G7 (4º ano, n=34); G8 (5º ano, n=35). Aplicadas Provas do processo de Identificação de Letras e Léxico do PROLEC. Resultados: os escolares do ensino particular apresentaram desempenho médio superior, com exceção da prova Igual-Diferente entre os grupos G1-G5 e G3-G7. As diferenças foram maiores entre os escolares até o 4º ano devido ao uso frequente da rota fonológica, sugerindo diferença no ensino do princípio alfabético entre as escolas públicas e particulares. Para o 5º ano, não houve diferença nas provas em que as palavras podem ser lidas pela rota lexical. Conclusão: os escolares do ensino particular apresentaram desempenho superior, com exceção das provas em que a rota fonológica não é a unicamente exigida. Contudo, no início da alfabetização, a rota fonológica foi mais utilizada do que a lexical, independente do tipo de ensino. Este estudo mostra a necessidade de o sistema de ensino priorizar na alfabetização a relação letra-som, de modo que os escolares de escola pública possam apresentar melhores resultados em decodificação que podem influenciar diretamente a compreensão e leitura.

ABSTRACT Purpose: to describe, compare and correlate the performance of Brazilian students from 2nd to 5th grade of Elementary Schools in public and private institutions for tests of letter identification and lexical process evaluation. Methods: 262 students attending Elementary Schools (122 from public school and 140 from private school), in the interior of São Paulo State: Public School - G1 (2nd grade, n=24); G2 (3rd grade, n=33); G3 (4th grade, n=31); G4 (5th grade, n=34) and Private School - G5 (2nd grade, n=37); G6 (3rd grade, n=34); G7 (4th grade, n=34); G8 (5th grade, n=35. Tests of Letter Identification and the Lexical process from PROLEC were applied. Results: the students from private school showed superior average performance, except for the same-different test between G1-G5 and G3-G7 groups. The differences were higher among the students up to de 4th grade, due to the frequent use of the phonological route. This suggests differences in teaching the Portuguese alphabetic principles in in private and public schools. For the 5th grade there was no evidence of difference for tests in which words could be read by the lexical route. Conclusion: the students from private school showed superior performance, except for the tests in which the phonological route was not entirely required. However, in the beginning of literacy, the phonological route was more used than the lexical route, regardless of the type of school. This study shows the education system necessity for prioritizing in early literacy the letter-sound relationship, so the students from public institutions can present better decoding results, which can directly impact reading and comprehension.

Efficacy of a perceptual and visual-motor skill intervention program for students with dyslexia.

PURPOSE: To verify the efficacy of a perceptual and visual-motor skill intervention program for students with dyslexia. METHODS: The participants were 20 students from third to fifth grade of a public elementary school in Marília, São Paulo, aged from 8 years to 11 years and 11 months, distributed into the following groups: Group I (GI; 10 students with developmental dyslexia) and Group II (GII; 10 students with good academic performance). A perceptual and visual-motor intervention program was applied, which comprised exercises for visual-motor coordination, visual discrimination, visual memory, visual-spatial relationship, shape constancy, sequential memory, visual figure-ground coordination, and visual closure. In pre- and post-testing situations, both groups were submitted to the Test of Visual-Perceptual Skills (TVPS-3), and the quality of handwriting was analyzed using the Dysgraphia Scale. RESULTS: The analyzed statistical results showed that both groups of students had dysgraphia in pretesting situation. In visual perceptual skills, GI presented a lower performance compared to GII, as well as in the quality of writing. After undergoing the intervention program, GI increased the average of correct answers in TVPS-3 and improved the quality of handwriting. CONCLUSION: The developed intervention program proved appropriate for being applied to students with dyslexia, and showed positive effects because it provided improved visual perception skills and quality of writing for students with developmental dyslexia.

Avaliação das habilidades metafonológicas (PROHFON): caracterização e comparação do desempenho em escolares / Metalinguistic skills evaluation (PROHFON): characterization and comparison of students' performance

Este estudo teve como objetivos caracterizar e comparar o desempenho de escolares com bom desempenho acadêmico do 3º ao 6º ano do Ensino Fundamental I e II nas Provas de Habilidades Metafonológicas (PROHFON). Participaram 169 escolares do 3º ao 6º ano do ensino fundamental, de ambos os gêneros, com faixa etária entre sete e 13 anos de idade, divididos grupos (GI: 52 escolares do 3º ano; GII: 51 escolares do 4º ano; GIII: 42 escolares do 5º ano; GIV: 24 escolares do 6º ano). Os resultados deste estudo demonstraram que os escolares, independente da seriação escolar, apresentaram dificuldades principalmente nas habilidades fonêmicas de contagem, de síntese e análise e na habilidade suprassegmental (rima). Concluímos que o PROHFON possibilitou a caracterização e a comparação dos escolares com bom desempenho acadêmico, sendo que não foram todas as habilidades metafonológicas que os escolares deste estudo apresentaram domínio de acordo com o aumento da escolarização, sugerindo falha no domínio das competências necessárias para a aquisição do principio alfabético da Língua Portuguesa. (AU)

This study aimed to characterize and to compare the performance of students with good academic performance from 3rd to 6th grade of Fundamental Education I and II in Metalinguistic Skills Tests (PROHFON). The study was composed of a total of 169 students from 3rd to 6th grade, of both genders, aged between 7 and 13 years, divided into two groups (GI: 52 students from 3rd grade; GII: 51 students from 4th grade; GIII: 42 students from 5th grade; GIV: 24 students from 6th grade). Results showed that students, regardless of their progress across grades, presented difficulties particularly in phonemic abilities of count, synthesis and analysis and the suprassegmental skills (rhyme). We concluded that PROHFON allowed for the characterization and comparison of students with good academic performance, and the students in this study did not present full domain in all metalinguistic skills as they progressed through grades, suggesting failure in the mastery of skills necessary for the acquisition of the alphabetic principle of the Portuguese language. (AU)

Efficacy of a perceptual and visual-motor skill intervention program for students with dyslexia / Eficácia de um programa de intervenção percepto-viso-motora para escolares com dislexia

Purpose: To verify the efficacy of a perceptual and visual-motor skill intervention program for students with dyslexia. Methods: The participants were 20 students from third to fifth grade of a public elementary school in Marília, São Paulo, aged from 8 years to 11 years and 11 months, distributed into the following groups: Group I (GI; 10 students with developmental dyslexia) and Group II (GII; 10 students with good academic performance). A perceptual and visual-motor intervention program was applied, which comprised exercises for visual-motor coordination, visual discrimination, visual memory, visual-spatial relationship, shape constancy, sequential memory, visual figure-ground coordination, and visual closure. In pre- and post-testing situations, both groups were submitted to the Test of Visual-Perceptual Skills (TVPS-3), and the quality of handwriting was analyzed using the Dysgraphia Scale. Results: The analyzed statistical results showed that both groups of students had dysgraphia in pretesting situation. In visual perceptual skills, GI presented a lower performance compared to GII, as well as in the quality of writing. After undergoing the intervention program, GI increased the average of correct answers in TVPS-3 and improved the quality of handwriting. Conclusion: The developed intervention program proved appropriate for being applied to students with dyslexia, and showed positive effects because it provided improved visual perception skills and quality of writing for students with developmental dyslexia. .

Objetivo : Verificar a eficácia de um programa de intervenção com habilidades percepto-viso-motoras para escolares com dislexia. Métodos: Participaram 20 escolares do terceiro ao quinto ano do Ensino Fundamental público da cidade de Marília (SP), de 8 anos a 11 anos e 11 meses de idade, sendo distribuídos nos seguintes grupos: GI (dez escolares com dislexia do desenvolvimento) e GII (dez escolares com bom desempenho acadêmico). Foi aplicado um programa de intervenção percepto-viso-motora composto de exercícios para a coordenação viso-motora, a discriminação visual, a memória visual, a relação viso-espacial, a constância de forma, a memória sequencial, a figura-fundo visual e a closura visual. Em situação de pré e pós-testagem, ambos os grupos foram submetidos à aplicação do Teste de Habilidades Perceptivas Visuais (TVPS-3), e a análise da escrita foi realizada através da Escala de Disgrafia. Resultados: Os resultados estatísticos analisados evidenciaram que ambos os grupos de escolares apresentaram disgrafia na pré-testagem. Nas habilidades de percepção visual, o GI apresentou desempenho inferior em relação ao GII, assim como na qualidade da escrita. Após ser submetido ao programa de intervenção, o GI aumentou as médias de acerto no TVPS-3 e melhorou a qualidade de escrita. Conclusão: O programa de intervenção elaborado se mostrou apropriado para ser aplicado em escolares com dislexia, assim como mostrou efeitos positivos, pois proporcionou melhora das habilidades de percepção visual e na qualidade da escrita de escolares com dislexia do desenvolvimento. .

Desempenho de escolares com dificuldades de aprendizagem em programa computadorizado de intervenção metafonológica e leitura / Performance of students with learning difficulties in metalinguistic and reading computadorized intervention program

Este estudo compara os achados da avaliação em situação de pré e pós testagem em escolares com e sem dificuldades de aprendizagem submetidos ao programa computadorizado de intervenção metafonológica e leitura e verifica a eficácia do programa de intervenção. Participaram 600 escolares 3o ao 5o ano, distribuídos da seguinte forma: GI, 300 escolares com dificuldades de aprendizagem e GII, 300 escolares sem dificuldades de aprendizagem, subdivididos em GIc e GIIc, com 150 escolares cada grupo, não submetidos à intervenção e GIe e GIIe, com 150 escolares cada grupo, submetidos à intervenção. Utilizou-se o programa computadorizado de avaliação e de intervenção metafonológica e leitura. Os resultados evidenciaram que houve diferença estatisticamente significante no desempenho dos escolares do GIe e GIIe em situação de pós testagem após serem submetidos à intervenção.

This study aimed to compare the findings of pre and post-test evaluation in students with learning difficulties and students without learning difficulties submitted to metalinguistic and reading computadorized intervention program and to verify the effectiveness of the intervention program. 600 students participated in this study, from 3rd to 5th grade level of primary school, distributed as follows: GI: 300 students with learning difficulties and GII 300 students without learning difficulties, subdivided into: GIc and GIIc of 150 students, each group, not submitted to intervention and GIe and GIIe of 150 students, each group, submitted to intervention. The metalinguistic and reading computadorized assessment and intervention were applied. The results showed statistically significant difference in the performance of GIe and GIIe in post-test after undergoing intervention.

Desempenho de escolares com dificuldades de aprendizagem em programa computadorizado de intervenção metafonológica e leitura / Performance of students with learning difficulties in metalinguistic and reading computadorized intervention program

Este estudo compara os achados da avaliação em situação de pré e pós testagem em escolares com e sem dificuldades de aprendizagem submetidos ao programa computadorizado de intervenção metafonológica e leitura e verifica a eficácia do programa de intervenção. Participaram 600 escolares 3o ao 5o ano, distribuídos da seguinte forma: GI, 300 escolares com dificuldades de aprendizagem e GII, 300 escolares sem dificuldades de aprendizagem, subdivididos em GIc e GIIc, com 150 escolares cada grupo, não submetidos à intervenção e GIe e GIIe, com 150 escolares cada grupo, submetidos à intervenção. Utilizou-se o programa computadorizado de avaliação e de intervenção metafonológica e leitura. Os resultados evidenciaram que houve diferença estatisticamente significante no desempenho dos escolares do GIe e GIIe em situação de pós testagem após serem submetidos à intervenção.(AU)

This study aimed to compare the findings of pre and post-test evaluation in students with learning difficulties and students without learning difficulties submitted to metalinguistic and reading computadorized intervention program and to verify the effectiveness of the intervention program. 600 students participated in this study, from 3rd to 5th grade level of primary school, distributed as follows: GI: 300 students with learning difficulties and GII 300 students without learning difficulties, subdivided into: GIc and GIIc of 150 students, each group, not submitted to intervention and GIe and GIIe of 150 students, each group, submitted to intervention. The metalinguistic and reading computadorized assessment and intervention were applied. The results showed statistically significant difference in the performance of GIe and GIIe in post-test after undergoing intervention.(AU)

Desempenho de escolares com dislexia: programas de intervenção metalinguístico e de leitura / Performance of students with dyslexia in intervention programs: metalinguistics and reading

A dislexia é um distúrbio específico de aprendizagem de origem neurológica, resultante de um déficit no componente fonológico da linguagem. Este estudo visou verificar o desempenho de escolares com dislexia em programa de intervenção fonológica, programa de leitura e programa de intervenção fonológica e leitura em escolares com dislexia. Participaram deste estudo 60 disléxicos distribuídos em: GI (dez escolares com dislexia submetidos e dez escolares com dislexia não submetidos ao programa de intervenção fonológica), GII (dez escolares com dislexia submetidos e dez escolares com dislexia não submetidos ao programa de leitura), GIII (dez escolares com dislexia submetidos e dez escolares com dislexia não submetidos ao programa de intervenção fonológica e leitura). Foi realizado o programa de intervenção fonológica e leitura em três etapas: pré-testagem, treino, pós-testagem. Os resultados revelaram diferenças estatisticamente significantes entre os dois momentos de avaliação, revelando melhora nas habilidades cognitivo-linguísticas em situação de pós-testagem comparando-se a pré-testagem, demonstrando a eficácia dos três programas para escolares com dislexia. Concluiu-se que houve uma melhora do desempenho dos escolares com dislexia submetidos aos programas de intervenção, evidenciando a necessidade da instrução fonológica no contexto da alfabetização, pois isso auxiliaria os escolares a desenvolverem habilidades cognitivo-linguísticas para a aprendizagem da base alfabética do sistema de escrita do português brasileiro.

Dyslexia is specific learning disabilities, of neurological origin, resulted from a phonological deficit of language. This study aims to verify the performance of students with dyslexia in phonological intervention program, reading program, and phonological and reading remediation program in students with dyslexia. The participants of this study were 60 students who were divided as follows: GI (ten students with dyslexia submitted to phonological remediation program and ten students with dyslexia not submitted to phonological remediation program), GII (ten students with dyslexia submitted to reading program and ten students with dyslexia not submitted to reading program), GIII (ten students with dyslexia submitted to phonological and reading program and ten students with dyslexia not submitted to phonological and reading program). The phonological and reading remediation was applied in three phases: pretest, training, post-testing. The results showed significant statistical difference between two evaluation moments, revealed better performance in the cognitive-linguistic skills in post-test situation comparing to the pretest, showing the efficacy of the three remediation programs for students with dyslexia. The better performance of the students with dyslexia submitted to the remediation programs shows the necessity of phonological instruction or phonological instruction with reading to be offered in the literacy context, once this will help students to develop cognitive-linguistic skills to learn the alphabetic basis of the Brazilian Portuguese writing system.

Desempenho de escolares com dislexia: programas de intervenção metalinguístico e de leitura / Performance of students with dyslexia in intervention programs: metalinguistics and reading

A dislexia é um distúrbio específico de aprendizagem de origem neurológica, resultante de um déficit no componente fonológico da linguagem. Este estudo visou verificar o desempenho de escolares com dislexia em programa de intervenção fonológica, programa de leitura e programa de intervenção fonológica e leitura em escolares com dislexia. Participaram deste estudo 60 disléxicos distribuídos em: GI (dez escolares com dislexia submetidos e dez escolares com dislexia não submetidos ao programa de intervenção fonológica), GII (dez escolares com dislexia submetidos e dez escolares com dislexia não submetidos ao programa de leitura), GIII (dez escolares com dislexia submetidos e dez escolares com dislexia não submetidos ao programa de intervenção fonológica e leitura). Foi realizado o programa de intervenção fonológica e leitura em três etapas: pré-testagem, treino, pós-testagem. Os resultados revelaram diferenças estatisticamente significantes entre os dois momentos de avaliação, revelando melhora nas habilidades cognitivo-linguísticas em situação de pós-testagem comparando-se a pré-testagem, demonstrando a eficácia dos três programas para escolares com dislexia. Concluiu-se que houve uma melhora do desempenho dos escolares com dislexia submetidos aos programas de intervenção, evidenciando a necessidade da instrução fonológica no contexto da alfabetização, pois isso auxiliaria os escolares a desenvolverem habilidades cognitivo-linguísticas para a aprendizagem da base alfabética do sistema de escrita do português brasileiro.

Dyslexia is specific learning disabilities, of neurological origin, resulted from a phonological deficit of language. This study aims to verify the performance of students with dyslexia in phonological intervention program, reading program, and phonological and reading remediation program in students with dyslexia. The participants of this study were 60 students who were divided as follows: GI (ten students with dyslexia submitted to phonological remediation program and ten students with dyslexia not submitted to phonological remediation program), GII (ten students with dyslexia submitted to reading program and ten students with dyslexia not submitted to reading program), GIII (ten students with dyslexia submitted to phonological and reading program and ten students with dyslexia not submitted to phonological and reading program). The phonological and reading remediation was applied in three phases: pretest, training, post-testing. The results showed significant statistical difference between two evaluation moments, revealed better performance in the cognitive-linguistic skills in post-test situation comparing to the pretest, showing the efficacy of the three remediation programs for students with dyslexia. The better performance of the students with dyslexia submitted to the remediation programs shows the necessity of phonological instruction or phonological instruction with reading to be offered in the literacy context, once this will help students to develop cognitive-linguistic skills to learn the alphabetic basis of the Brazilian Portuguese writing system.

Visual-motor perception in students with attention deficit with hyperactivity disorder.

PURPOSE: The aim of this study was to characterize and to compare the visual-motor perception of students with Attention Deficit with Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD) with students with good academic performance. METHODS: Forty students from 2nd to 5th grades of an elementary public school, male gender (100%), aged between 7 and 10 years and 8 months old participated, divided into: GI (20 students with ADHD) and GII (20 students with good academic performance), paired according to age, schooling and gender with GI. The students were submitted to Developmental Test of Visual Perception (DTVP-2). RESULTS: The students of GI presented low performance in spatial position and visual closure (reduced motor) and inferior age equivalent in reduced motor perception, when compared to GII. CONCLUSION: The difficulties in visual-motor perception presented by students of GI cannot be attributed to a primary deficit, but to a secondary phenomenon of inattention that interferes directly in their visual-motor performance.

Percepção viso-motora de escolares com Transtorno do Déficit de Atenção com Hiperatividade / Visual-motor perception in students with Attention Deficit with Hyperactivity Disorder

OBJETIVO: Caracterizar e comparar as habilidades de percepção viso-motoras de escolares com Transtorno do Déficit de Atenção com Hiperatividade (TDAH) com escolares com bom desempenho acadêmico. MÉTODOS: Participaram deste estudo 40 escolares na faixa etária de 7 anos a 10 anos e 8 meses, do 2º ao 5º ano do Ensino Fundamental de escolas públicas, divididos em GI (20 escolares com diagnóstico interdisciplinar de TDAH) do gênero masculino (100%) e GII (20 escolares com bom desempenho escolar), pareados com o GI em idade, escolaridade e gênero. Os escolares foram submetidos ao Teste Evolutivo de Percepção Visual (DTVP-2). RESULTADOS: Os escolares de GI apresentaram desempenho inferior na função de posição no espaço e closura visual (motricidade reduzida) e equivalente de idade inferior para percepção de motricidade reduzida em relação ao GII. CONCLUSÃO: As dificuldades em percepção viso-motora apresentadas pelos escolares de GI podem ser atribuídas não a um déficit primário, mas a um fenômeno secundário à desatenção que interfere de forma direta em seu desempenho de percepção viso-motora.

PURPOSE: The aim of this study was to characterize and to compare the visual-motor perception of students with Attention Deficit with Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD) with students with good academic performance. METHODS: Forty students from 2nd to 5th grades of an elementary public school, male gender (100%), aged between 7 and 10 years and 8 months old participated, divided into: GI (20 students with ADHD) and GII (20 students with good academic performance), paired according to age, schooling and gender with GI. The students were submitted to Developmental Test of Visual Perception (DTVP-2). RESULTS: The students of GI presented low performance in spatial position and visual closure (reduced motor) and inferior age equivalent in reduced motor perception, when compared to GII. CONCLUSION: The difficulties in visual-motor perception presented by students of GI cannot be attributed to a primary deficit, but to a secondary phenomenon of inattention that interferes directly in their visual-motor performance.

Desempenho em consciência fonológica, nomeação rápida, leitura e escrita em escolares com dislexia secundária a retardo mental e com bom desempenho acadêmico / Performance in phonological awareness, rapid naming, reading and writing in students with secondary dyslexia to mental retardation and with good academic performance

OBJETIVOS: caracterizar o desempenho em provas de consciência fonológica, de nomeação rápida e de leitura e escrita em escolares com dislexia secundária a retardo mental e com bom desempenho acadêmico. MÉTODO: participaram deste estudo 20 escolares da 1ª a 4ª séries do ensino fundamental da rede pública municipal da cidade de Marília-SP, com faixa etária de 8 a 12 anos de idade, de ambos os sexos, divididos em GI (10 escolares com o diagnóstico interdisciplinar de dislexia secundária a retardo mental leve) e GII (10 escolares com bom desempenho acadêmico, pareados segundo sexo e faixa etária com o GI). Os escolares foram submetidos à Prova de Consciência Fonológica, à Prova de Leitura e Escrita e à Prova de Nomeação Automatizada Rápida. RESULTADOS: houve diferença significante em relação ao desempenho dos escolares nas provas silábicas e fonêmicas, na prova de leitura e escrita e na prova de nomeção rápida; os escolares de GII apresentaram melhor desempenho que os escolares de GI. CONCLUSÃO: houve relação entre os achados de velocidade de nomeação, leitura oral e escrita sob ditado, sendo relacionados ao déficit fonológico, à característica cognitivo-linguística do GI e à interferência da falta de instrução direta da correspondência grafofonêmica em situação de atividades acadêmicas para ambos os grupos.

PURPOSE: to characterize the performance in phonological awareness, rapid naming, reading and writing in students with developmental dyslexia secondary to mental retardation and good readers. METHOD: 20 students from first to fourth grade of a public school of Marília - SP, both genders, from to 8 to 12-year old took part in this study, divided into GI (10 students with interdisciplinary diagnosis of dyslexia, secondary to mild mental retardation) and GII (10 studentswith good academic development according to gender, age and grade level). The students were submitted to the Phonological Awareness Test, the Test of Reading and Writing and Rapid Automated Naming. RESULTS: there were significant differences regarding the performance of students in the syllabic and phonemic tasks, reading and writing, Rapid Automated Naming, with better performance of the students of GII than GI. CONCLUSION: there was a relationship among the findings of naming speed, oral reading and writing under dictation, which were related with the phonological deficit, cognitive-linguistic characteristic of GI and the interference and the lack of direct instruction of their spelling correspondence in a situation of academic activities for both groups.

Função motora fina, sensorial e perceptiva de escolares com transtorno do déficit de atenção com hiperatividade / Fine motor, sensory and perceptive function of students with attention deficit disorder with hyperactivity

OBJETIVO: Caracterizar e comparar as funções motoras fina, sensorial e perceptiva de escolares com Transtorno do Déficit de Atenção com Hiperatividade (TDAH) e escolares com bom desempenho escolar sem alterações de comportamento. MÉTODOS: Participaram 22 escolares do ensino fundamental, de gênero masculino, distribuídos em: GI - 11 escolares com Transtorno do Déficit de Atenção com Hiperatividade; e GII - 11 escolares com bom desempenho acadêmico e sem alterações de comportamento. Os escolares foram submetidos à aplicação do Protocolo de Avaliação da Função Motora Fina, Sensorial e Perceptiva e da Escala de Disgrafia. RESULTADOS: Houve diferença nas tarefas de função motora fina, função sensorial e função perceptiva entre o GI e o GII, com desempenho inferior do GI. Todos os escolares de GI apresentaram disgrafia. CONCLUSÃO: Escolares com Transtorno do Déficit de Atenção com Hiperatividade apresentam desempenho inferior aos escolares com bom desempenho acadêmico em relação às funções motoras fina, sensorial e perceptiva. Tais dificuldades podem causar impacto significativo sobre o desempenho acadêmico, uma vez que comprometem o desenvolvimento da linguagem escrita, ocasionando disgrafia nesses escolares.

PURPOSE: To characterize and compare the fine motor, sensory and perceptive functions of students with Attention Deficit Disorder with Hyperactivity (ADHD) and students with good academic performance, without behavior alteration. METHODS: Participants were 22 male students from Elementary School distributed into: GI - 11 children with ADHD; and GII - 11 students with good academic performance and no behavior alteration. Students were submitted to the Protocol for Evaluation of Fine Motor, Sensory and Perceptual Function, and to the Dysgraphia Scale. RESULTS: There were differences between GI and GII in tasks concerning fine motor function, sensory function, and perceptual function, with lower performance from GI. All students in GI presented dysgraphia. CONCLUSION: Students with Attention Deficit Disorder with Hyperactivity present lower performance regarding fine motor, sensory and perception functions in relation to students with good academic performance. These difficulties can cause significant impact on academic performance, impairing the development of written language and causing dysgraphia in these students.

Desempenho cognitivo-linguístico e achados de neuroimagem de escolares com dislexia, transtorno do déficit de atenção com hiperatividade / Cognitive-linguistic performance and neuroimaging findings of students with dyslexia, attention deficit hyperactivity disorder

OBJETIVO: Este estudo buscou caracterizar e comparar os achados cognitivo-linguísticos e a neuroimagem de escolares disléxicos, com transtorno do déficit de atenção com hiperatividade e bom desempenho acadêmico. MÉTODOS: Participaram 53 escolares, divididos em GI, 17 escolares disléxicos; GII, 17 com transtorno do déficit de atenção com hiperatividade e GIII, 19 com bom desempenho acadêmico. Realizou-se o teste de desempenho cognitivo-linguístico e o exame de neuroimagem. RESULTADOS: Os resultados indicaram desempenho inferior de GI e GII em relação aos desempenhos cognitivo-linguísticos do GIII. Os resultados de neuroimagem indicaram hipoperfusão na porção mesial do lobo temporal-esquerdo para GI e no frontal-esquerdo para GII. CONCLUSÃO: O perfil cognitivo-linguístico dos escolares do GI e GII pode ser decorrente das alterações de fluxo sanguíneo em regiões do sistema nervoso central.

OBJECTIVE: This study aimed at characterizing and comparing the performance of students with dyslexia, attention deficit hyperactivity disorder, and good readers in cognitive-linguistic tests and neuroimaging. METHODS: This study included 53 students, divided into GI, 17 students with interdisciplinary diagnoses of dyslexia; GII, 17 with interdisciplinary diagnoses with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder; and GIII, 19 good readers. We applied the cognitive-linguistic performance test and neuroimaging exams (Single Photon Emission Computed Tomography). RESULTS: The results revealed that GI and GII showed low scores in the cognitive-linguistic performance test. The neuroimaging exams indicated predominance of hypoperfusion in the mesial portion of the left temporal lobe for GI and in the left frontal lobe for GII. CONCLUSION: The low performance of GI and GII are related with the cognitive-linguistic profile and may be due to changes in blood flow in some areas of the central nervous system.

[Performance of students with dyslexia, learning disabilities and learning difficulties in metaphonological abilities tests (PROHFON)]. / Desempenho de escolares com dislexia, transtornos e dificuldades de aprendizagem em provas de habilidades metafonológicas (PROHFON).

PURPOSE: To elaborate a procedure of metaphonological evaluation, and to characterize the performance of students with developmental dyslexia, learning disabilities and learning difficulties and good readers in this evaluation. METHODS: Metaphonological abilities tests were elaborated based on the necessary skills for reading and writing development. Participants were 134 students from 3rd to 5th grades of elementary school of both genders, with ages between 7 and 13 years, divided into GI (20 students with developmental dyslexia), GII (20 students with learning disabilities), GIII (20 students with learning difficulties) and GIV (74 good readers). The assessment of metaphonological abilities - PROHFON - was applied. RESULTS: Students from GI and GII differed from GIV in most of the tests; GI differed from GII only in the phonemic synthesis and analysis test, and from GIII in abilities of deletion and combination of phonemes. GIII differed from GIV in counting, identification, rhyming, deletion, and combination abilities. CONCLUSION: Students with developmental dyslexia, learning disabilities and learning difficulties, and good readers showed similar performances in identification, counting and combining phonemes, rhyme and alliteration abilities. The groups differed from each other regarding syllabic (counting, identification, synthesis and analysis, deletion, combination) and phonemic (deletion, synthesis and analysis) abilities. The PROHFON contributed to characterize the metaphonological profile of students with different learning deficits.