Diversity of US participants in AstraZeneca-sponsored clinical trials.

BACKGROUND: To develop medicines that are safe and efficacious to all patients, clinical trials must enroll appropriate target populations, but imbalances related to race, ethnicity and sex have been reported. A comprehensive analysis and improvement in understanding representativeness of patient enrollment in industry-sponsored trials are key public health needs. METHODS: We assessed race/ethnicity and sex representation in AstraZeneca (AZ)-sponsored clinical trials in the United States (US) from 2010 to 2022, compared with the 2019 US Census. RESULTS: In total, 246 trials representing 95,372 patients with complete race/ethnicity and sex records were analyzed. The proportions of different race/ethnicity subgroups in AZ-sponsored clinical trials and the US Census were similar (White: 69.5% vs 60.1%, Black or African American: 13.3% vs 12.5%, Asian: 1.8% vs 5.8%, Hispanic: 14.4% vs 18.5%). We also observed parity in the proportions of males and females between AZ clinical trials and US Census (males: 52.4% vs 49.2%, females: 47.6% vs 50.8%). Comparisons of four distinct therapy areas within AZ (Respiratory and Immunology [R&I]; Cardiovascular, Renal, and Metabolism [CVRM]; Solid Tumors; and Hematological Malignancies), including by trial phases, revealed greater variability, with proportions observed above and below US Census levels. CONCLUSION: This analysis provides the first detailed insights into the representativeness of AZ trials. Overall, the proportions of different race/ethnicity and sex subgroups in AZ-sponsored clinical trials were broadly aligned with the US Census. We outline some of AZ's planned health equity initiatives that are intended to continue to improve equitable patient enrollment.

Community assessment to advance computational prediction of cancer drug combinations in a pharmacogenomic screen.

The effectiveness of most cancer targeted therapies is short-lived. Tumors often develop resistance that might be overcome with drug combinations. However, the number of possible combinations is vast, necessitating data-driven approaches to find optimal patient-specific treatments. Here we report AstraZeneca's large drug combination dataset, consisting of 11,576 experiments from 910 combinations across 85 molecularly characterized cancer cell lines, and results of a DREAM Challenge to evaluate computational strategies for predicting synergistic drug pairs and biomarkers. 160 teams participated to provide a comprehensive methodological development and benchmarking. Winning methods incorporate prior knowledge of drug-target interactions. Synergy is predicted with an accuracy matching biological replicates for >60% of combinations. However, 20% of drug combinations are poorly predicted by all methods. Genomic rationale for synergy predictions are identified, including ADAM17 inhibitor antagonism when combined with PIK3CB/D inhibition contrasting to synergy when combined with other PI3K-pathway inhibitors in PIK3CA mutant cells.

Defining actionable mutations for oncology therapeutic development.

Genomic profiling of tumours in patients in clinical trials enables rapid testing of multiple hypotheses to confirm which genomic events determine likely responder groups for targeted agents. A key challenge of this new capability is defining which specific genomic events should be classified as 'actionable' (that is, potentially responsive to a targeted therapy), especially when looking for early indications of patient subgroups likely to be responsive to new drugs. This Opinion article discusses some of the different approaches being taken in early clinical development to define actionable mutations, and describes our strategy to address this challenge in early-stage exploratory clinical trials.

Integrative analyses identify modulators of response to neoadjuvant aromatase inhibitors in patients with early breast cancer.

INTRODUCTION: Aromatase inhibitors (AIs) are a vital component of estrogen receptor positive (ER+) breast cancer treatment. De novo and acquired resistance, however, is common. The aims of this study were to relate patterns of copy number aberrations to molecular and proliferative response to AIs, to study differences in the patterns of copy number aberrations between breast cancer samples pre- and post-AI neoadjuvant therapy, and to identify putative biomarkers for resistance to neoadjuvant AI therapy using an integrative analysis approach. METHODS: Samples from 84 patients derived from two neoadjuvant AI therapy trials were subjected to copy number profiling by microarray-based comparative genomic hybridisation (aCGH, n=84), gene expression profiling (n=47), matched pre- and post-AI aCGH (n=19 pairs) and Ki67-based AI-response analysis (n=39). RESULTS: Integrative analysis of these datasets identified a set of nine genes that, when amplified, were associated with a poor response to AIs, and were significantly overexpressed when amplified, including CHKA, LRP5 and SAPS3. Functional validation in vitro, using cell lines with and without amplification of these genes (SUM44, MDA-MB134-VI, T47D and MCF7) and a model of acquired AI-resistance (MCF7-LTED) identified CHKA as a gene that when amplified modulates estrogen receptor (ER)-driven proliferation, ER/estrogen response element (ERE) transactivation, expression of ER-regulated genes and phosphorylation of V-AKT murine thymoma viral oncogene homolog 1 (AKT1). CONCLUSIONS: These data provide a rationale for investigation of the role of CHKA in further models of de novo and acquired resistance to AIs, and provide proof of concept that integrative genomic analyses can identify biologically relevant modulators of AI response.

Identification of chemokine receptors as potential modulators of endocrine resistance in oestrogen receptor-positive breast cancers.

INTRODUCTION: Endocrine therapies target oestrogenic stimulation of breast cancer (BC) growth, but resistance remains problematic. Our aims in this study were (1) to identify genes most strongly associated with resistance to endocrine therapy by intersecting global gene transcription data from patients treated presurgically with the aromatase inhibitor anastrazole with those from MCF7 cells adapted to long-term oestrogen deprivation (LTED) (2) to assess the clinical value of selected genes in public clinical data sets and (3) to determine the impact of targeting these genes with novel agents. METHODS: Gene expression and Ki67 data were available from 69 postmenopausal women with oestrogen receptor-positive (ER+) early BC, at baseline and 2 weeks after anastrazole treatment, and from cell lines adapted to LTED. The functional consequences of target genes on proliferation, ER-mediated transcription and downstream cell signalling were assessed. RESULTS: By intersecting genes predictive of a poor change in Ki67 with those upregulated in LTED cells, we identified 32 genes strongly correlated with poor antiproliferative response that were associated with inflammation and/or immunity. In a panel of LTED cell lines, C-X-C chemokine receptor type 7 (CXCR7) and CXCR4 were upregulated compared to their wild types (wt), and CXCR7, but not CXCR4, was associated with reduced relapse-free survival in patients with ER+ BC. The CXCR4 small interfering RNA variant (siCXCR4) had no specific effect on the proliferation of wt-SUM44, wt-MCF7 and their LTED derivatives. In contrast, siCXCR7, as well as CCX733, a CXCR7 antagonist, specifically suppressed the proliferation of MCF7-LTED cells. siCXCR7 suppressed proteins associated with G1/S transition and inhibited ER transactivation in MCF7-LTED, but not wt-MCF7, by impeding association between ER and proline-, glutamic acid- and leucine-rich protein 1, an ER coactivator. CONCLUSIONS: These data highlight CXCR7 as a potential therapeutic target warranting clinical investigation in endocrine-resistant BC.

Differences in the transcriptional response to fulvestrant and estrogen deprivation in ER-positive breast cancer.

PURPOSE: Endocrine therapies include aromatase inhibitors and the selective estrogen receptor (ER) downregulator fulvestrant. This study aimed to determine whether the reported efficacy of fulvestrant over anastrozole, and high- over low-dose fulvestrant, reflect distinct transcriptional responses. EXPERIMENTAL DESIGN: Global gene expression profiles from ERα-positive breast carcinomas before and during presurgical treatment with fulvestrant (n = 22) or anastrozole (n = 81), and corresponding in vitro models, were compared. Transcripts responding differently to fulvestrant and estrogen deprivation were identified and integrated using Gene Ontology, pathway and network analyses to evaluate their potential significance. RESULTS: The overall transcriptional response to fulvestrant and estrogen deprivation was correlated (r = 0.61 in presurgical studies, r = 0.87 in vitro), involving downregulation of estrogen-regulated and proliferation-associated genes. The transcriptional response to fulvestrant was of greater magnitude than estrogen deprivation (slope = 0.62 in presurgical studies, slope = 0.63 in vitro). Comparative analyses identified 28 genes and 40 Gene Ontology categories affected differentially by fulvestrant. Seventeen fulvestrant-specific genes, including CAV1/2, SNAI2, and NRP1, associated with ERα, androgen receptor (AR), and TP53, in a network regulating cell cycle, death, survival, and tumor morphology. Eighteen genes responding differently to fulvestrant specifically predicted antiproliferative response to fulvestrant, but not anastrozole. Transcriptional effects of low-dose fulvestrant correlated with high-dose treatment, but were of lower magnitude (ratio = 0.29). CONCLUSIONS: The transcriptional response to fulvestrant has much in common with estrogen deprivation, but is stronger with distinctions potentially attributable to arrest of estrogen-independent ERα activity and involvement of AR signaling. Genes responding differently to fulvestrant may have predictive utility. These data are consistent with the clinical efficacy of fulvestrant versus anastrozole and higher dosing regimens.

Effect of aromatase inhibition on functional gene modules in estrogen receptor-positive breast cancer and their relationship with antiproliferative response.

PURPOSE: To investigate potential associations between gene modules representing key biologic processes and response to aromatase inhibitors (AI) in estrogen receptor-positive (ER(+)) breast cancer. PATIENTS AND METHODS: Paired gene expression and Ki67 protein expression were available from 69 postmenopausal women with ER(+) early breast cancer, at baseline and 2 weeks post-anastrozole treatment, in the presurgical setting. Functional gene modules (n = 26) were retrieved from published studies and their module scores were computed before and after elimination of proliferation-associated genes (PAG). Ki67 and module scores were assessed at baseline and 2 weeks post-anastrozole. Unsupervised clustering was used to assess associations between modules and Ki67. RESULTS: Proliferation-based modules were highly correlated with Ki67 expression both pretreatment and on-treatment. At baseline with and without PAGs, Ki67 expression was significantly inversely correlated with ERG, ESR1.2, SET, and PIK3CA modules. Modules measuring estrogen signaling strongly predicted antiproliferative response to therapy with and without PAGs. Baseline expression of insulin-like growth factor-1 (IGF-I) module predicted a poor change in Ki67-implicating genes within the module as involved in de novo resistance to AIs. High expression of Immune.2.STAT1 module pretreatment predicted poor antiproliferative response to therapy. A significant association between estrogen-regulated genes modules (ESR1, ESR1-2, SET, and ERG) was evident post AI. CONCLUSIONS: Multiple processes and pathways are affected by AI treatment in ER(+) breast cancer. Modules closely associated with ESR1 expression were predictive of good antiproliferative response to AIs, but modules representing immune activity and IGF-I/MAPK were predictive of poor Ki67 response, supporting their therapeutic targeting in combination with AIs.

Concordant effects of aromatase inhibitors on gene expression in ER+ Rat and human mammary cancers and modulation of the proteins coded by these genes.

Aromatase inhibitors are effective in therapy/prevention of estrogen receptor-positive (ER⁺) breast cancers. Rats bearing methylnitrosourea (MNU)-induced ER⁺ mammary cancers were treated with the aromatase inhibitor vorozole (1.25 mg/kg BW/day) for five days. RNA expression showed 162 downregulated and 180 upregulated (P < 0.05 and fold change >1.5) genes. Genes modulated by vorozole were compared with published data from four clinical neoadjuvant trials using aromatase inhibitors (anastrozole or letrozole). More than 30 genes and multiple pathways exhibited synchronous changes in animal and human datasets. Cell-cycle genes related to chromosome condensation in prometaphase [anaphase-prometaphase complex (APC) pathway, including Aurora-A kinase, BUBR1B, TOP2, cyclin A, cyclin B CDC2, and TPX-2)] were downregulated in animal and human studies reflecting the strong antiproliferative effects of aromatase inhibitors. Comparisons of rat arrays with a cell culture study where estrogen was removed from MCF-7 cells showed decreased expression of E2F1-modulated genes as a major altered pathway. Alterations of the cell cycle and E2F-related genes were confirmed in a large independent set of human samples (81 pairs baseline and two weeks anastrozole treatment). Decreases in proliferation-related genes were confirmed at the protein level for cyclin A2, BuRB1, cdc2, Pttg, and TPX-2. Interestingly, the proteins downregulated in tumors were similarly downregulated in vorozole-treated normal rat mammary epithelium. Finally, decreased expression of known estrogen-responsive genes (including TFF, 1,3, progesterone receptor, etc.) were decreased in the animal model. These studies demonstrate that gene expression changes (pathways and individual genes) are similar in humans and the rat model.

Molecular profiling of aromatase inhibitor-treated postmenopausal breast tumors identifies immune-related correlates of resistance.

PURPOSE: Estrogen withdrawal by treatment with aromatase inhibitors is the most effective form of endocrine therapy for postmenopausal estrogen receptor-positive (ER+) breast cancer. However, response to therapy varies markedly and understanding of the precise molecular effects of aromatase inhibitors and causes of resistance is limited. We aimed to identify in clinical breast cancer those genes and pathways most associated with resistance to aromatase inhibitors by examining the global transcriptional effects of AI treatment. EXPERIMENTAL DESIGN: Baseline and 2-week posttreatment biopsies were obtained from 112 postmenopausal women with ER+ breast cancer receiving neoadjuvant anastrozole. Gene expression data were obtained from 81 baseline and 2-week paired samples. Pathway analysis identified (i) the most prevalent changes in expression and (ii) the pretreatment genes/pathways most related to poor antiproliferative response. RESULTS: A total of 1,327 genes were differentially expressed after 2-week treatment (false discovery rate < 0.01). Proliferation-associated genes and classical estrogen-dependent genes were strongly downregulated whereas collagens and chemokines were upregulated. Pretreatment expression of an inflammatory signature correlated with antiproliferative response to anastrozole and this observation was validated in an independent study. Higher expression of immune-related genes such as SLAMF8 and TNF as well as lymphocytic infiltration were associated with poorer response (P < 0.001) and validated in an independent cohort. CONCLUSIONS: The molecular response to aromatase inhibitor treatment varies greatly between patients consistent with the variable clinical benefit from aromatase inhibitor treatment. Higher baseline expression of an inflammatory signature is associated with poor antiproliferative response and should be assessed further as a novel biomarker and potential target for aromatase inhibitor-treated patients.

Effectiveness and molecular interactions of the clinically active mTORC1 inhibitor everolimus in combination with tamoxifen or letrozole in vitro and in vivo.

INTRODUCTION: Strategies to improve the efficacy of endocrine agents in breast cancer (BC) therapy and to delay the onset of resistance include concomitant targeting of the estrogen receptor alpha (ER) and the mammalian target of rapamycin complex 1 (mTORC1), which regulate cell-cycle progression and are supported by recent clinical results. METHODS: BC cell lines expressing aromatase (AROM) and modeling endocrine-sensitive (MCF7-AROM1) and human epidermal growth factor receptor 2 (HER2)-dependent de novo resistant disease (BT474-AROM3) and long-term estrogen-deprived (LTED) MCF7 cells that had acquired resistance associated with HER2 overexpression were treated in vitro and as subcutaneous xenografts with everolimus (RAD001-mTORC1 inhibitor), in combination with tamoxifen or letrozole. End points included proliferation, cell-cycle arrest, cell signaling, and effects on ER-mediated transactivation. RESULTS: Everolimus caused a concentration-dependent decrease in proliferation in all cell lines, which was associated with reductions in S6 phosphorylation. Everolimus plus letrozole or tamoxifen enhanced the antiproliferative effect and G1-accumulation compared with monotherapy, as well as increased phosphorylation (Ser10) and nuclear accumulation of p27 and pronounced dephosphorylation of Rb. Sensitivity was greatest to everolimus in the LTED cells but was reduced by added estrogen. Increased pAKT occurred in all circumstances with everolimus and, in the BT474 and LTED cells, was associated with increased pHER3. Decreased ER transactivation suggested that the effectiveness of everolimus might be partly related to interrupting cross-talk between growth-factor signaling and ER. In MCF7-AROM1 xenografts, letrozole plus everolimus showed a trend toward enhanced tumor regression, versus the single agents. In BT474-AROM3 xenografts, everolimus alone was equally effective at reducing tumor volume as were the combination therapies. CONCLUSIONS: The results provide mechanistic support for recent positive clinical data on the combination of everolimus and endocrine therapy, as well as data on potential routes of escape via enhanced HER2/3 signaling. This merits investigation for further improvements in treatment efficacy.

Preclinical and clinical studies of estrogen deprivation support the PDGF/Abl pathway as a novel therapeutic target for overcoming endocrine resistance in breast cancer.

INTRODUCTION: The majority of breast tumors at primary diagnosis are estrogen receptor positive (ER+). Estrogen (E) mediates its effects by binding to the ER. Therapies targeting the estrogenic stimulation of tumor growth reduce mortality from ER+ breast cancer. However, resistance remains a major clinical problem. METHODS: To identify molecular mechanisms associated with resistance to E-deprivation, we assessed the temporal changes in global gene expression during adaptation to long-term culture of MCF7 human breast cancer cells in the absence of estradiol (E2), long term estrogen deprived (LTED), that leads to recovery of proliferative status and models resistance to an aromatase inhibitor (AI). The expression levels of proteins were determined by western blotting. Proliferation assays were carried out using the dual platelet derived growth factor receptor (PDGFR)/Abelson tyrosine kinase (Abl) inhibitor nilotinib. Luciferase reporter assays were used to determine effects on ER-mediated transactivation. Changes in recruitment of cofactors to the gene regulated by estrogen in breast cancer 1 (GREB1) promoter were determined by chromatin immunoprecipitation (ChIP). Gene expression data were derived from 81 postmenopausal women with ER+ BC pre-treatment and at two-weeks post-treatment with single agent anastrozole in a neoadjuvant trial. RESULTS: The PDGF/Abl canonical pathway was significantly elevated as early as one week post E-deprivation (P = 1.94 E-04) and this became the top adaptive pathway at the point of proliferative recovery (P = 1.15 E-07). Both PDGFRß and Abl protein levels were elevated in the LTED cells compared to wild type (wt)-MCF7 cells. The PDGF/Abl tyrosine kinase inhibitor nilotinib, suppressed proliferation in LTED cells in the presence or absence of E. Nilotinib also suppressed ER-mediated transcription by destabilizing the ER and reducing recruitment of amplified in breast cancer-1 (AIB1) and the CREB binding protein (CBP) to the promoter of the E-responsive gene GREB1. High PDGFRß in primary ER+ breast cancer of 81 patients prior to neoadjuvant treatment with an AI was associated with poorer antiproliferative response. Additionally PDGFRß expression increased after two weeks of AI therapy (1.25 fold, P = 0.003). CONCLUSIONS: These preclinical and clinical data indicate that the PDGF/Abl signaling pathway merits clinical evaluation as a therapeutic target with endocrine therapy in ER+ breast cancer.

Endocrine therapy, new biologicals, and new study designs for presurgical studies in breast cancer.

The preoperative setting is increasingly popular for the clinical investigation of hormonal agents and new biological drugs. The effectiveness of endocrine agents is well established for estrogen receptor-positive disease, and the emphasis in preoperative studies is on their combination with agents targeted at resistance mechanisms over 3 or more months. New agents are also being assessed for early evidence of clinical efficacy in shorter-term window-of-opportunity studies. The establishment of Ki67 as an intermediate marker of treatment benefit and of long-term outcome, with endocrine drugs, provides the opportunity for new trial designs with Ki67 as the primary endpoint. The PeriOperative Endocrine Therapy for Individualizing Care (POETIC) trial is randomizing (2:1) 4000 estrogen receptor-positive patients to 2 weeks presurgical treatment with a nonsteroidal aromatase inhibitor or no presurgical treatment. It provides a unique opportunity for detailed study of the determinants of response and resistance to estrogen deprivation as well as testing the role of presurgical therapy for improved biomarker-based estimates of prognosis.

ERα-dependent E2F transcription can mediate resistance to estrogen deprivation in human breast cancer.

Most estrogen receptor α (ER)-positive breast cancers initially respond to antiestrogens, but many eventually become estrogen-independent and recur. We identified an estrogen-independent role for ER and the CDK4/Rb/E2F transcriptional axis in the hormone-independent growth of breast cancer cells. ER downregulation with fulvestrant or small interfering RNA (siRNA) inhibited estrogen-independent growth. Chromatin immunoprecipitation identified ER genomic binding activity in estrogen-deprived cells and primary breast tumors treated with aromatase inhibitors. Gene expression profiling revealed an estrogen-independent, ER/E2F-directed transcriptional program. An E2F activation gene signature correlated with a lesser response to aromatase inhibitors in patients' tumors. siRNA screening showed that CDK4, an activator of E2F, is required for estrogen-independent cell growth. Long-term estrogen-deprived cells hyperactivate phosphatidylinositol 3-kinase (PI3K) independently of ER/E2F. Fulvestrant combined with the pan-PI3K inhibitor BKM120 induced regression of ER(+) xenografts. These data support further development of ER downregulators and CDK4 inhibitors, and their combination with PI3K inhibitors for treatment of antiestrogen-resistant breast cancers.

ESR1 is co-expressed with closely adjacent uncharacterised genes spanning a breast cancer susceptibility locus at 6q25.1.

Approximately 80% of human breast carcinomas present as oestrogen receptor α-positive (ER+ve) disease, and ER status is a critical factor in treatment decision-making. Recently, single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) in the region immediately upstream of the ER gene (ESR1) on 6q25.1 have been associated with breast cancer risk. Our investigation of factors associated with the level of expression of ESR1 in ER+ve tumours has revealed unexpected associations between genes in this region and ESR1 expression that are important to consider in studies of the genetic causes of breast cancer risk. RNA from tumour biopsies taken from 104 postmenopausal women before and after 2 weeks treatment with an aromatase (oestrogen synthase) inhibitor was analyzed on Illumina 48K microarrays. Multiple-testing corrected Spearman correlation revealed that three previously uncharacterized open reading frames (ORFs) located immediately upstream of ESR1, C6ORF96, C6ORF97, and C6ORF211 were highly correlated with ESR1 (Rs =  0.67, 0.64, and 0.55 respectively, FDR<1 × 10(-7)). Publicly available datasets confirmed this relationship in other groups of ER+ve tumours. DNA copy number changes did not account for the correlations. The correlations were maintained in cultured cells. An ERα antagonist did not affect the ORFs' expression or their correlation with ESR1, suggesting their transcriptional co-activation is not directly mediated by ERα. siRNA inhibition of C6ORF211 suppressed proliferation in MCF7 cells, and C6ORF211 positively correlated with a proliferation metagene in tumours. In contrast, C6ORF97 expression correlated negatively with the metagene and predicted for improved disease-free survival in a tamoxifen-treated published dataset, independently of ESR1. Our observations suggest that some of the biological effects previously attributed to ER could be mediated and/or modified by these co-expressed genes. The co-expression and function of these genes may be important influences on the recently identified relationship between SNPs in this region and breast cancer risk.

Association between breast cancer subtypes and response to neoadjuvant anastrozole.

Considerable heterogeneity exists amongst oestrogen receptor positive (ER+ve) breast cancer in both its molecular profile and response to therapy. Attempts to better define variation amongst breast tumours have led to the definition of four main "intrinsic" subtypes of breast cancer with two of these classes, Luminal A and B, composed almost entirely of ER+ve cancers. In this study we set out to investigate the significance of intrinsic subtypes within a group of ER+ve breast cancers treated with neoadjuvant anastrozole. RNA from tumour biopsies taken from 104 postmenopausal women before and after 2 weeks treatment with anastrozole was analyzed on Illumina 48K microarrays. Gene-expression based subtypes and risk of relapse (ROR) scores for tumours pre- and post-treatment were determined using the PAM50 method. Amongst pre-treatment samples, all intrinsic subtypes were found to be present, although luminal groups were represented most highly. Luminal A and B tumours obtained similar benefit from treatment, as measured by the proportional fall in the proliferation marker Ki67 upon treatment (mean suppression=75.5% vs 75.7%). Tumours classified as basal and Her2-like showed poor reductions in Ki67 upon treatment. Residual Ki67 staining after two weeks remained higher in the Luminal B group. ROR score was significantly associated with anti-proliferative response to AI and with clinical response. These results suggest that in the short-term, Luminal A and B tumours may gain similar benefit from an AI but that the higher residual Ki67 level seen in Luminal B is indicative of poorer long term outcome.

Close and stable relationship between proliferation and a hypoxia metagene in aromatase inhibitor-treated ER-positive breast cancer.

PURPOSE: The majority of breast cancer patients who have estrogen receptor positive (ER(+)) tumors whose proliferation is reduced after estrogen deprivation by aromatase inhibitors (AI). This study investigates any link between proliferation and hypoxia, a major determinant of tumor biology, and defines the effect of estrogen deprivation on hypoxia-associated genes. METHODS: Genome-wide expression profiles were obtained from tumor biopsies from 81 ER(+) postmenopausal patients, before and after 2 weeks' anastrozole treatment. A hypoxia metagene was developed by identifying genes clustered with classical hypoxia-regulated genes, excluding those associated with proliferation. Proliferation was measured by Ki67 and a proliferation metagene derived from two published breast cancer data sets. RESULTS: Hypoxia and proliferation metagenes were associated at baseline (Pearson correlation coefficient, r = 0.67, P < 10(-4)) and after 2 weeks (r = 0.71, P < 10(-4)). Hypoxia metagene at baseline was associated with 2-week Ki67 (r = 0.43, P = 0.0002) and more weakly with poor 2-week Ki67 change consistent with a weak association with AI resistance. Hypoxia metagene was significantly downregulated with AI. This downregulation was significantly associated with change in the proliferation metagene and with Ki67 but, importantly, not with the substantial change in expression of classical estrogen-dependent genes. CONCLUSIONS: Hypoxia metagene is closely associated with proliferation before and after AI treatment. The downregulation of hypoxia metagene after AI therapy is most likely the result of changes in proliferation. There may be a weak effect of hypoxia metagene on de novo resistance to AIs. These findings are important to consider in coapplication of antiproliferative agents with antiangiogenic or antihypoxia agents.

A gene expression signature from human breast cancer cells with acquired hormone independence identifies MYC as a mediator of antiestrogen resistance.

PURPOSE: Although most patients with estrogen receptor α (ER)-positive breast cancer initially respond to endocrine therapy, many ultimately develop resistance to antiestrogens. However, mechanisms of antiestrogen resistance and biomarkers predictive of such resistance are underdeveloped. EXPERIMENTAL DESIGN: We adapted four ER(+) human breast cancer cell lines to grow in an estrogen-depleted medium. A gene signature of estrogen independence was developed by comparing expression profiles of long-term estrogen-deprived (LTED) cells to their parental counterparts. We evaluated the ability of the LTED signature to predict tumor response to neoadjuvant therapy with an aromatase inhibitor and disease outcome following adjuvant tamoxifen. We utilized Gene Set Analysis (GSA) of LTED cell gene expression profiles and a loss-of-function approach to identify pathways causally associated with resistance to endocrine therapy. RESULTS: The LTED gene expression signature was predictive of high tumor cell proliferation following neoadjuvant therapy with anastrozole and letrozole, each in different patient cohorts. This signature was also predictive of poor recurrence-free survival in two studies of patients treated with adjuvant tamoxifen. Bioinformatic interrogation of expression profiles in LTED cells revealed a signature of MYC activation. The MYC activation signature and high MYC protein levels were both predictive of poor outcome following tamoxifen therapy. Finally, knockdown of MYC inhibited LTED cell growth. CONCLUSIONS: A gene expression signature derived from ER(+) breast cancer cells with acquired hormone independence predicted tumor response to aromatase inhibitors and associated with clinical markers of resistance to tamoxifen. Activation of the MYC pathway was associated with this resistance.

Relationship between plasma estradiol levels and estrogen-responsive gene expression in estrogen receptor-positive breast cancer in postmenopausal women.

PURPOSE To determine whether plasma estradiol (E2) levels are related to gene expression in estrogen receptor (ER)-positive breast cancers in postmenopausal women. Materials and METHODS Genome-wide RNA profiles were obtained from pretreatment core-cut tumor biopsies from 104 postmenopausal patients with primary ER-positive breast cancer treated with neoadjuvant anastrozole. Pretreatment plasma E2 levels were determined by highly sensitive radioimmunoassay. Genes were identified for which expression was correlated with pretreatment plasma E2 levels. Validation was performed in an independent set of 73 ER-positive breast cancers. Results The expression of many known estrogen-responsive genes and gene sets was highly significantly associated with plasma E2 levels (eg, TFF1/pS2, GREB1, PDZK1 and PGR; P < .005). Plasma E2 explained 27% of the average expression of these four average estrogen-responsive genes (ie, AvERG; r = 0.51; P < .0001), and a standardized mean of plasma E2 levels and ER transcript levels explained 37% (r, 0.61). These observations were validated in an independent set of 73 ER-positive tumors. Exploratory analysis suggested that addition of the nuclear coregulators in a multivariable analysis with ER and E2 levels might additionally improve the relationship with the AvERG. Plasma E2 and the standardized mean of E2 and ER were both significantly correlated with 2-week Ki67, a surrogate marker of clinical outcome (r = -0.179; P = .05; and r = -0.389; P = .0005, respectively). CONCLUSION Plasma E2 levels are significantly associated with gene expression of ER-positive breast cancers and should be considered in future genomic studies of ER-positive breast cancer. The AvERG is a new experimental tool for the study of putative estrogenic stimuli of breast cancer.

A common genomic framework for a diverse assembly of plasmids in the symbiotic nitrogen fixing bacteria.

This work centres on the genomic comparisons of two closely-related nitrogen-fixing symbiotic bacteria, Rhizobium leguminosarum biovar viciae 3841 and Rhizobium etli CFN42. These strains maintain a stable genomic core that is also common to other rhizobia species plus a very variable and significant accessory component. The chromosomes are highly syntenic, whereas plasmids are related by fewer syntenic blocks and have mosaic structures. The pairs of plasmids p42f-pRL12, p42e-pRL11 and p42b-pRL9 as well large parts of p42c with pRL10 are shown to be similar, whereas the symbiotic plasmids (p42d and pRL10) are structurally unrelated and seem to follow distinct evolutionary paths. Even though purifying selection is acting on the whole genome, the accessory component is evolving more rapidly. This component is constituted largely for proteins for transport of diverse metabolites and elements of external origin. The present analysis allows us to conclude that a heterogeneous and quickly diversifying group of plasmids co-exists in a common genomic framework.

The effects of neoadjuvant anastrozole and tamoxifen on circulating vascular endothelial growth factor and soluble vascular endothelial growth factor receptor 1 in breast cancer.

PURPOSE: Vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF) is a key angiogenic factor mediating neovascularization. Soluble VEGF receptor 1 (sVEGFR-1) is an intrinsic negative counterpart of VEGF signaling and the ratio of sVEGFR-1 to VEGF has been shown to be a prognostic factor. Estrogen-bound estrogen receptor enhances VEGF expression, providing a common link between these signaling pathways that may be targeted by endocrine therapy. We investigated the effects of anastrozole and tamoxifen over time on serum VEGF and sVEGFR-1. EXPERIMENTAL DESIGN: The Immediate Preoperative Anastrozole, Tamoxifen, or Combined with Tamoxifen (IMPACT) trial compared the preoperative use of anastrozole with tamoxifen in postmenopausal women with estrogen receptor-positive primary operable breast cancer over 12 weeks. Circulating VEGF and sVEGFR-1 were measured by ELISA in 106 patients treated with anastrozole or tamoxifen alone at baseline and after 2 and 12 weeks of treatment. RESULTS: The increase in serum VEGF from baseline to 12 weeks was significantly different between anastrozole and tamoxifen (anastrozole versus tamoxifen, 6% versus 38%; P = 0.047). There was a significant increase in sVEGFR-1 levels after 12 weeks of anastrozole (P = 0.037). The sVEGFR-1/VEGF ratio significantly decreased in the tamoxifen arm (P = 0.013) and the change in sVEGFR-1/VEGF ratio from baseline to 12 weeks was significantly different between anastrozole and tamoxifen (anastrozole versus tamoxifen, 24% increase versus 34% decrease; P = 0.013). CONCLUSIONS: Treatment with anastrozole and tamoxifen resulted in differential effects on serum angiogenic markers. This may be related to the relative effectiveness of the treatments. These data provide further support for cross talk between estrogen receptor and VEGF.