Plant phenology, growth and nutritive quality of Briza maxima: responses induced by enhanced ozone atmospheric levels and nitrogen enrichment.

An assessment of the effects of tropospheric ozone (O(3)) levels and substrate nitrogen (N) supplementation, singly and in combination, on phenology, growth and nutritive quality of Briza maxima was carried out. Two serial experiments were developed in Open-Top Chambers (OTC) using three O(3) and three N levels. Increased O(3) exposure did not affect the biomass-related parameters, but enhanced senescence, increased fiber foliar content (especially lignin concentration) and reduced plant life span; these effects were related to senescence acceleration induced by the pollutant. Added N increased plant biomass production and improved nutritive quality by decreasing foliar fiber concentration. Interestingly, the effects of N supplementation depended on meteorological conditions and plant physiological activity. N supplementation counteracted the O(3)-induced senescence but did not modify the effects on nutritive quality. Nutritive quality and phenology should be considered in new definitions of the O(3) limits for the protection of herbaceous vegetation.

Nitrogen critical loads and management alternatives for N-impacted ecosystems in California.

Empirical critical loads for N deposition effects and maps showing areas projected to be in exceedance of the critical load (CL) are given for seven major vegetation types in California. Thirty-five percent of the land area for these vegetation types (99,639 km(2)) is estimated to be in excess of the N CL. Low CL values (3-8 kg N ha(-1) yr(-1)) were determined for mixed conifer forests, chaparral and oak woodlands due to highly N-sensitive biota (lichens) and N-poor or low biomass vegetation in the case of coastal sage scrub (CSS), annual grassland, and desert scrub vegetation. At these N deposition critical loads the latter three ecosystem types are at risk of major vegetation type change because N enrichment favors invasion by exotic annual grasses. Fifty-four and forty-four percent of the area for CSS and grasslands are in exceedance of the CL for invasive grasses, while 53 and 41% of the chaparral and oak woodland areas are in exceedance of the CL for impacts on epiphytic lichen communities. Approximately 30% of the desert (based on invasive grasses and increased fire risk) and mixed conifer forest (based on lichen community changes) areas are in exceedance of the CL. These ecosystems are generally located further from emissions sources than many grasslands or CSS areas. By comparison, only 3-15% of the forested and chaparral land areas are estimated to be in exceedance of the NO(3)(-) leaching CL. The CL for incipient N saturation in mixed conifer forest catchments was 17 kg N ha(-1) yr(-1). In 10% of the CL exceedance areas for all seven vegetation types combined, the CL is exceeded by at least 10 kg N ha(-1) yr(-1), and in 27% of the exceedance areas the CL is exceeded by at least 5 kg N ha(-1) yr(-1). Management strategies for mitigating the effects of excess N are based on reducing N emissions and reducing site N capital through approaches such as biomass removal and prescribed fire or control of invasive grasses by mowing, selective herbicides, weeding or domestic animal grazing. Ultimately, decreases in N deposition are needed for long-term ecosystem protection and sustainability, and this is the only strategy that will protect epiphytic lichen communities.

Empirical and simulated critical loads for nitrogen deposition in California mixed conifer forests.

Empirical critical loads (CL) for N deposition were determined from changes in epiphytic lichen communities, elevated NO(3)(-) leaching in streamwater, and reduced fine root biomass in ponderosa pine (Pinus ponderosa Dougl. ex Laws.) at sites with varying N deposition. The CL for lichen community impacts of 3.1 kg ha(-1) year(-1) is expected to protect all components of the forest ecosystem from the adverse effects of N deposition. Much of the western Sierra Nevada is above the lichen-based CL, showing significant changes in lichen indicator groups. The empirical N deposition threshold and that simulated by the DayCent model for enhanced NO(3)(-)leaching were 17 kg N ha(-1) year(-1). DayCent estimated that elevated NO(3)(-) leaching in the San Bernardino Mountains began in the late 1950s. Critical values for litter C:N (34.1), ponderosa pine foliar N (1.1%), and N concentrations (1.0%) in the lichen Letharia vulpina ((L.) Hue) are indicative of CL exceedance.

Risk assessments for forest trees: the performance of the ozone flux versus the AOT concepts.

Published ozone exposure-response relationships from experimental studies with young trees performed at different sites across Europe were re-analysed in order to test the performance of ozone exposure indices based on AOTX (Accumulated exposure Over a Threshold of X nmol mol(-1)) and AF(st)Y (Accumulated Stomatal Flux above a threshold of Y nmol m(-2) s(-1)). AF(st)1.6 was superior, as compared to AOT40, for explaining biomass reductions, when ozone sensitive species with differing leaf morphology were included in the analysis, while this was not the case for less sensitive species. A re-analysis of data with young black cherry trees, subject to different irrigation regimes, indicated that leaf visible injuries were more strongly related to the estimated stomatal ozone uptake, as compared to the ozone concentration in the air. Experimental data with different clones of silver birch indicated that leaf thickness was also an important factor influencing the development of ozone induced leaf visible injury.

Stomatal conductance of semi-natural Mediterranean grasslands: implications for the development of ozone critical levels.

Intra-genus and intra-specific variation and the influence of nitrogen enrichment on net assimilation and stomatal conductance of some annual Trifolium species of Mediterranean dehesa grasslands were assessed under experimental conditions. Also gas exchange rates were compared between some Leguminosae and Poaceae species growing in the field in a dehesa ecosystem in central Spain. The results showed that the previously reported different O3 sensitivity of some Trifolium species growing in pots does not seem to be related to different maximum g(s) values. In addition, no clear differences on gas exchange rates could be attributed to Leguminosae and Poaceae families growing in the field, with intra-genus variation being more important than differences found between families. Further studies are needed to increase the database for developing a flux-based approach for setting O3 critical levels for semi-natural Mediterranean species.

Compensation processes of Aleppo pine (Pinus halepensis Mill.) to ozone exposure and drought stress.

A long-term experiment was performed to study the effects of O3 and drought-stress (DS) on Aleppo pine seedlings (Pinus halepensis Mill.) exposed in open-top chambers. Ozone reduced gas exchange rates, ribulose-1,5-biphosphate carboxylase/oxygenase activity (Rubisco), aboveground C and needle N concentrations and C/N ratio and Ca concentrations of the twigs under 3 mm (twigs<3) and the aerial biomass. Also it increased phosphoenolpyruvate carboxylase (PEPc) and N and K concentrations of the twigs<3. Water stress decreased gas exchange rates, predawn needle water potential (PsiPd), C/N ratio, twigs<3 Ca, plant growth, aerial biomass and increased N, twigs with a diameter above 3 mm P and Mg concentrations. The combined exposure to both stresses increased N concentrations of twigs<3 and roots and aboveground biomass K content and decreased root C, maximum daily assimilation rate and instantaneous water use efficiency. The sensitivity of Aleppo pine to both stresses is determined by plant internal resource allocation and compensation mechanisms to cope with stress.

Growth response to ozone of annual species from Mediterranean pastures.

Ozone (O3) phytotoxicity has been reported on a wide range of plant species. However, scarce information has been provided regarding the sensitivity of semi-natural grassland species, especially those from dehesa Mediterranean grasslands, in spite of their great biological diversity and the high O3 levels recorded in the region. A screening study was carried out in open-top chambers (OTCs) to assess the O3-sensitivity of representative therophytes of these ecosystems based on the response of selected growth-related parameters. Three O3 treatments and 3 OTCs per treatment were used. Legume species were very sensitive to O3, because 78% of the tested species showed detrimental effects on their total biomass relative growth rate (RGR) following their exposure to O3. The Trifolium genus was particularly sensitive showing O3-induced adverse effects on most of the assessed parameters. Gramineae plants were less sensitive than Leguminosae species because detrimental effects on total biomass RGR were only observed in 14% of the assessed species. No relationship was found between relative growth rates when growing in clean air and O3 susceptibility. The implications of these effects on the performance of dehesa acidic grasslands and on the definition of ozone critical levels for the protection of semi-natural vegetation are discussed.

Antioxidative defense and photoprotection in Pinus halepensis induced by Mediterranean conditions and ozone exposure.

Pigment levels and antioxidative stress-related metabolites were determined over a period of two years in Pinus halepensis to characterize the response of some plant protective processes to both environmental stresses and 03 exposure. Two-year-old-Aleppo pine seedlings were grown in open-top chambers under optimal nutrient and water conditions and exposed to different 03 levels: charcoal filtered air, non-filtered air and nonfiltered air plus 40 ppb O3 10 h/day. In summer an activation of photoprotective systems was observed since a decrease in chlorophyll levels, an increase in the carotenoid/chlorophyll ratio and SOD activation were recorded. Interestingly, the SOD activity in Pinus halepensis was highly related to low-molecular weight compounds and this relationship increased with needle age. Ozone exposure induced alterations in the activity of some antioxidant enzymes along with reductions in pigment concentrations and an activation of the xanthophyll cycle.

[Long-distance transportation of atmospheric pollutants and its effects on ecosystems]. / Transporte a grandes distancias de contaminantes atmosféricos y sus efectos sobre los ecosistemas.

It was known, as far back as the nineteenth century, that rain water from industrial areas was more acid than that from rural areas. The potential risks for life in general were discussed, but no further attention was paid to the issue. At the end of the twentieth century, the ecosystems of Europe, Canada and the United States have been severely damaged by pollutants borne by atmospheric winds to places distant from their origin. The main effects of these atmospheric pollutants are due to sulfur and nitrogen oxide dilution and to photochemical reactions. International organizations have been formed and agreements pronounced and ratified by many countries for a universal study on the pollution process, on the transport of pollutants--mostly sulfur, nitrogen and ozone--and on how to collaborate in order to reduce emissions in the respective countries of origin for the worldwide profit.