Resting state electroencephalographic alpha rhythms are sensitive to Alzheimer's disease mild cognitive impairment progression at a 6-month follow-up.

Are posterior resting-state electroencephalographic (rsEEG) alpha rhythms sensitive to the Alzheimer's disease mild cognitive impairment (ADMCI) progression at a 6-month follow-up? Clinical, cerebrospinal, neuroimaging, and rsEEG datasets in 52 ADMCI and 60 Healthy old seniors (equivalent groups for demographic features) were available from an international archive (www.pdwaves.eu). The ADMCI patients were arbitrarily divided into two groups: REACTIVE and UNREACTIVE, based on the reduction (reactivity) in the posterior rsEEG alpha eLORETA source activities from the eyes-closed to eyes-open condition at ≥ -10% and -10%, respectively. 75% of the ADMCI patients were REACTIVE. Compared to the UNREACTIVE group, the REACTIVE group showed (1) less abnormal posterior rsEEG source activity during the eyes-closed condition and (2) a decrease in that activity at the 6-month follow-up. These effects could not be explained by neuroimaging and neuropsychological biomarkers of AD. Such a biomarker might reflect abnormalities in cortical arousal in quiet wakefulness to be used for clinical studies in ADMCI patients using 6-month follow-ups.

Poor reactivity of posterior electroencephalographic alpha rhythms during the eyes open condition in patients with dementia due to Parkinson's disease.

Here, we hypothesized that the reactivity of posterior resting-state electroencephalographic (rsEEG) alpha rhythms during the transition from eyes-closed to -open condition might be lower in patients with Parkinson's disease dementia (PDD) than in patients with Alzheimer's disease dementia (ADD). A Eurasian database provided clinical-demographic-rsEEG datasets in 73 PDD patients, 35 ADD patients, and 25 matched cognitively unimpaired (Healthy) persons. The eLORETA freeware was used to estimate cortical rsEEG sources. Results showed substantial (greater than -10%) reduction (reactivity) in the posterior alpha source activities from the eyes-closed to the eyes-open condition in 88% of the Healthy seniors, 57% of the ADD patients, and only 35% of the PDD patients. In these alpha-reactive participants, there was lower reactivity in the parietal alpha source activities in the PDD group than in the healthy control seniors and the ADD patients. These results suggest that PDD patients show poor reactivity of mechanisms desynchronizing posterior rsEEG alpha rhythms in response to visual inputs. That neurophysiological biomarker may provide an endpoint for (non) pharmacological interventions for improving vigilance regulation in those patients.

Relationship between default mode network and resting-state electroencephalographic alpha rhythms in cognitively unimpaired seniors and patients with dementia due to Alzheimer's disease.

Here we tested the hypothesis of a relationship between the cortical default mode network (DMN) structural integrity and the resting-state electroencephalographic (rsEEG) rhythms in patients with Alzheimer's disease with dementia (ADD). Clinical and instrumental datasets in 45 ADD patients and 40 normal elderly (Nold) persons originated from the PDWAVES Consortium (www.pdwaves.eu). Individual rsEEG delta, theta, alpha, and fixed beta and gamma bands were considered. Freeware platforms served to derive (1) the (gray matter) volume of the DMN, dorsal attention (DAN), and sensorimotor (SMN) cortical networks and (2) the rsEEG cortical eLORETA source activities. We found a significant positive association between the DMN gray matter volume, the rsEEG alpha source activity estimated in the posterior DMN nodes (parietal and posterior cingulate cortex), and the global cognitive status in the Nold and ADD participants. Compared with the Nold, the ADD group showed lower DMN gray matter, lower rsEEG alpha source activity in those nodes, and lower global cognitive status. This effect was not observed in the DAN and SMN. These results suggest that the DMN structural integrity and the rsEEG alpha source activities in the DMN posterior hubs may be related and predict the global cognitive status in ADD and Nold persons.

Resting state EEG rhythms in different stages of chronic kidney disease with mild cognitive impairment.

Here, we tested that standard eyes-closed resting-state electroencephalographic (rsEEG) rhythms may characterize patients with mild cognitive impairment due to chronic kidney disease at stages 3-4 (CKDMCI-3&4) in relation to CKDMCI patients under hemodialysis (CKDMCI-H) and mild cognitive impairment (MCI) patients with cerebrovascular disease (CVMCI). Clinical and rsEEG data in 22 CKDMCI-3&4, 15 CKDMCI-H, 18 CVMCI, and 30 matched healthy control (HC) participants were available in a national archive. Spectral rsEEG power density was calculated from delta to gamma frequency bands at scalp electrodes. Results showed that (1) all MCI groups over the HC group showed decreased occipital rsEEG alpha power density; (2) compared to the HC and CVMCI groups, the 2 CKDMCI groups had higher rsEEG delta-theta power density; and (3) the CKDMCI-3&4 group showed the lowest parietal rsEEG alpha power density. The present rsEEG measures may be useful to monitor the impact of circulating uremic toxins on brain regulation of cortical arousal for quiet vigilance in CKDMCI patients.

Retinal and Choriocapillaris Vascular Changes in Early Alzheimer Disease Patients Using Optical Coherence Tomography Angiography.

BACKGROUND: Alzheimer disease (AD) is a neurodegenerative disorder characterized by ß-amyloid accumulation in the brain. A simple and reliable biomarker for AD that is not invasive is urgently needed, particularly in the preclinical and early stages of the disease. The retina shares with the brain, the same embryologic origins and it is affected by similar vascular changes. The aim of this study was to analyze the characteristics of the retinal and choriocapillaris vascular structure through optical coherence tomography-angiography (OCTA) evaluation in patients with early AD. METHODS: Eighteen patients with early AD (study group) and 18 healthy age-matched subjects (control group) were enrolled in the study. All patients underwent full neurologic and ophthalmologic examination, and OCTA scans. RESULTS: We found a significant reduction in flow area of choriocapillaris in the study group compared with the control group (P-value: 0.006), suggesting an impairment of choriocapillaris circulation in patients with early AD. CONCLUSION: OCTA provides accumulative evidence on the microvasculature changes of the retina and choriocapillaris in patients with AD. Further studies and improved OCTA software are necessary to better evaluate the role of vascular changes shown with OCTA as potential biomarkers in early disease.

Patients with Alzheimer's disease dementia show partially preserved parietal 'hubs' modeled from resting-state alpha electroencephalographic rhythms.

Introduction: Graph theory models a network by its nodes (the fundamental unit by which graphs are formed) and connections. 'Degree' hubs reflect node centrality (the connection rate), while 'connector' hubs are those linked to several clusters of nodes (mainly long-range connections). Methods: Here, we compared hubs modeled from measures of interdependencies of between-electrode resting-state eyes-closed electroencephalography (rsEEG) rhythms in normal elderly (Nold) and Alzheimer's disease dementia (ADD) participants. At least 5 min of rsEEG was recorded and analyzed. As ADD is considered a 'network disease' and is typically associated with abnormal rsEEG delta (<4 Hz) and alpha rhythms (8-12 Hz) over associative posterior areas, we tested the hypothesis of abnormal posterior hubs from measures of interdependencies of rsEEG rhythms from delta to gamma bands (2-40 Hz) using eLORETA bivariate and multivariate-directional techniques in ADD participants versus Nold participants. Three different definitions of 'connector' hub were used. Results: Convergent results showed that in both the Nold and ADD groups there were significant parietal 'degree' and 'connector' hubs derived from alpha rhythms. These hubs had a prominent outward 'directionality' in the two groups, but that 'directionality' was lower in ADD participants than in Nold participants. Discussion: In conclusion, independent methodologies and hub definitions suggest that ADD patients may be characterized by low outward 'directionality' of partially preserved parietal 'degree' and 'connector' hubs derived from rsEEG alpha rhythms.

What a Single Electroencephalographic (EEG) Channel Can Tell us About Alzheimer's Disease Patients With Mild Cognitive Impairment.

Abnormalities in cortical sources of resting-state eyes closed electroencephalographic (rsEEG) rhythms recorded by hospital settings (10-20 montage) with 19 scalp electrodes characterized Alzheimer's disease (AD) from preclinical to dementia stages. An intriguing rsEEG application is the monitoring and evaluation of AD progression in large populations with few electrodes in low-cost devices. Here we evaluated whether the above-mentioned abnormalities can be observed from fewer scalp electrodes in patients with mild cognitive impairment due to AD (ADMCI). Clinical and rsEEG data acquired in hospital settings (10-20 montage) from 75 ADMCI participants and 70 age-, education-, and sex-matched normal elderly controls (Nold) were available in an Italian-Turkish archive (PDWAVES Consortium; www.pdwaves.eu). Standard spectral fast fourier transform (FFT) analysis of rsEEG data for individual delta, theta, and alpha frequency bands was computed from 6 monopolar scalp electrodes to derive bipolar C3-P3, C4-P4, P3-O1, and P4-O2 markers. The ADMCI group showed increased delta and decreased alpha power density at the C3-P3, C4-P4, P3-O1, and P4-O2 bipolar channels compared to the Nold group. Increased theta power density for ADMCI patients was observed only at the C3-P3 bipolar channel. Best classification accuracy between the ADMCI and Nold individuals reached 81% (area under the receiver operating characteristic curve) using Alpha2/Theta power density computed at the C3-P3 bipolar channel. Standard rsEEG power density computed from six posterior bipolar channels characterized ADMCI status. These results may pave the way toward diffuse clinical applications in health monitoring of dementia using low-cost EEG systems with a strict number of electrodes in lower- and middle-income countries.

What a single electroencephalographic (EEG) channel can tell us about patients with dementia due to Alzheimer's disease.

Abnormalities in cortical sources of resting-state eyes-closed electroencephalographic (rsEEG) rhythms recorded by hospital settings (10-20 electrode montage) with 19 scalp electrodes provide useful markers of neurophysiological dysfunctions in the vigilance regulation in patients with Alzheimer's disease dementia (ADD). Here we tested whether these markers may be effective from a few scalp electrodes towards the use of low-cost recording devices. Clinical and rsEEG data acquired in hospital settings (10-20 electrode montage) from 88 ADD participants and 68 age-, education-, and sex-matched normal elderly controls (Nold) were available in an international Eurasian database. Standard spectral FFT analysis of rsEEG data for individual delta, theta, and alpha frequency bands was from C3-P3, C4-P4, P3-O1, and P4-O2 bipolar channels. As compared to the Nold group, the ADD group showed increased delta, theta, low-frequency alpha power density and decreased high-frequency alpha power density at all those bipolar channels. The highest classification accuracy between the ADD and Nold individuals reached 90 % (area under the receiver operating characteristic curve) using Alpha2/Theta power density computed at the C3-P3 bipolar channel. Standard rsEEG power density computed from a few posterior bipolar channels successfully classified Nold and ADD individuals, thus encouraging a massive prescreening of neurophysiological mechanisms underpinning the vigilance dysregulation in underserved old seniors.

Caregivers' Profiles Based on the Canadian Occupational Performance Measure for the Adoption of Assistive Technologies.

The COPM (Canadian Occupational Performance Measure) is a tool that is based on the identification of self-perceived performance and satisfaction problems in the performance of occupations, allowing the creation of a hierarchy in the order of the interventions to be carried out, and speeding up the identification of the necessary AT (Assistive Technologies). Given the importance of the caregiver's perception about their own performance in the design of AT, this research examines the caregiver's profile through the COPM. A sample of 40 caregivers volunteered to participate in the study. A cluster analysis was carried out on the COPM scores. Two caregiver profiles were found in relation to the COPM measure, one with low scores on performance and satisfaction and another with high scores on both of these two variables. The main predictor was found to be the self-perception of performance. The structure was replicated through a hierarchical cluster analysis, where the role of caregivers was of interest. These results are relevant on both a theoretical and practical level.

Circulating U13 Small Nucleolar RNA as a Potential Biomarker in Huntington's Disease: A Pilot Study.

Plasma small RNAs have been recently explored as biomarkers in Huntington's disease (HD). We performed an exploratory study on nine HD patients, eight healthy subjects (HS), and five psychiatric patients (PP; to control for iatrogenic confounder effects) through an Affymetrix-Gene-Chip-miRNA-Array. We validated the results in an independent population of 23 HD, 15 pre-HD, 24 PP, 28 Alzheimer's disease (AD) patients (to control the disease-specificity) and 22 HS through real-time PCR. The microarray results showed higher levels of U13 small nucleolar RNA (SNORD13) in HD patients than controls (fold change 1.54, p = 0.003 HD vs. HS, and 1.44, p = 0.0026 HD vs. PP). In the validation population, a significant increase emerged with respect to both pre-HD and the control groups (p < 0.0001). SNORD13 correlated with the status of the mutant huntingtin carrier (r = 0.73; p < 0.001) and the disease duration (r = 0.59; p = 0.003). The receiver operating characteristic (ROC) curve analysis showed the high accuracy of SNORD13 in discriminating HD patients from other groups (AUC = 0.963). An interactome and pathway analysis on SNORD13 revealed enrichments for factors relevant to HD pathogenesis. We report the unprecedented finding of a potential disease-specific role of SNORD13 in HD. It seems to peripherally report a 'tipping point' in the pathogenic cascade at the neuronal level.

Reactivity of posterior cortical electroencephalographic alpha rhythms during eyes opening in cognitively intact older adults and patients with dementia due to Alzheimer's and Lewy body diseases.

Please modify the Abstract as follows:Here we tested if the reactivity of posterior resting-state electroencephalographic (rsEEG) alpha rhythms from the eye-closed to the eyes-open condition may differ in patients with dementia due to Lewy Bodies (DLB) and Alzheimer's disease (ADD) as a functional probe of the dominant neural synchronization mechanisms regulating the vigilance in posterior visual systems.We used clinical, demographical, and rsEEG datasets in 28 older adults (Healthy), 42 DLB, and 48 ADD participants. The eLORETA freeware was used to estimate cortical rsEEG sources.Results showed a substantial (> -10%) reduction in the posterior alpha activities during the eyes-open condition in 24 Healthy, 26 ADD, and 22 DLB subjects. There were lower reductions in the posterior alpha activities in the ADD and DLB groups than in the Healthy group. That reduction in the occipital region was lower in the DLB than in the ADD group.These results suggest that DLB patients may suffer from a greater alteration in the neural synchronization mechanisms regulating vigilance in occipital cortical systems compared to ADD patients.

Resting State Alpha Electroencephalographic Rhythms Are Affected by Sex in Cognitively Unimpaired Seniors and Patients with Alzheimer's Disease and Amnesic Mild Cognitive Impairment: A Retrospective and Exploratory Study.

In the present retrospective and exploratory study, we tested the hypothesis that sex may affect cortical sources of resting state eyes-closed electroencephalographic (rsEEG) rhythms recorded in normal elderly (Nold) seniors and patients with Alzheimer's disease and mild cognitive impairment (ADMCI). Datasets in 69 ADMCI and 57 Nold individuals were taken from an international archive. The rsEEG rhythms were investigated at individual delta, theta, and alpha frequency bands and fixed beta (14-30 Hz) and gamma (30-40 Hz) bands. Each group was stratified into matched females and males. The sex factor affected the magnitude of rsEEG source activities in the Nold seniors. Compared with the males, the females were characterized by greater alpha source activities in all cortical regions. Similarly, the parietal, temporal, and occipital alpha source activities were greater in the ADMCI-females than the males. Notably, the present sex effects did not depend on core genetic (APOE4), neuropathological (Aß42/phospho-tau ratio in the cerebrospinal fluid), structural neurodegenerative and cerebrovascular (MRI) variables characterizing sporadic AD-related processes in ADMCI seniors. These results suggest the sex factor may significantly affect neurophysiological brain neural oscillatory synchronization mechanisms underpinning the generation of dominant rsEEG alpha rhythms to regulate cortical arousal during quiet vigilance.

Resting State Alpha Electroencephalographic Rhythms Are Differently Related to Aging in Cognitively Unimpaired Seniors and Patients with Alzheimer's Disease and Amnesic Mild Cognitive Impairment.

BACKGROUND: In relaxed adults, staying in quiet wakefulness at eyes closed is related to the so-called resting state electroencephalographic (rsEEG) rhythms, showing the highest amplitude in posterior areas at alpha frequencies (8-13 Hz). OBJECTIVE: Here we tested the hypothesis that age may affect rsEEG alpha (8-12 Hz) rhythms recorded in normal elderly (Nold) seniors and patients with mild cognitive impairment due to Alzheimer's disease (ADMCI). METHODS: Clinical and rsEEG datasets in 63 ADMCI and 60 Nold individuals (matched for demography, education, and gender) were taken from an international archive. The rsEEG rhythms were investigated at individual delta, theta, and alpha frequency bands, as well as fixed beta (14-30 Hz) and gamma (30-40 Hz) bands. Each group was stratified into three subgroups based on age ranges (i.e., tertiles). RESULTS: As compared to the younger Nold subgroups, the older one showed greater reductions in the rsEEG alpha rhythms with major topographical effects in posterior regions. On the contrary, in relation to the younger ADMCI subgroups, the older one displayed a lesser reduction in those rhythms. Notably, the ADMCI subgroups pointed to similar cerebrospinal fluid AD diagnostic biomarkers, gray and white matter brain lesions revealed by neuroimaging, and clinical and neuropsychological scores. CONCLUSION: The present results suggest that age may represent a deranging factor for dominant rsEEG alpha rhythms in Nold seniors, while rsEEG alpha rhythms in ADMCI patients may be more affected by the disease variants related to earlier versus later onset of the AD.

Exploring the association of early life physical activity and risk of dementia: a systematic review.

INTRODUCTION: Physical activity has been included in the list of twelve modifiable risk factors for dementia, despite conflicting results from observational and controlled studies. In particular it is not clear whether physical inactivity near the time of dementia diagnosis is a consequence or cause of dementia. We review all available studies reporting the possible association between having engaged in PA before 60 years of age and the risk of dementia. EVIDENCE ACQUISITION: We performed a systematic review based on the methodology reported in the Cochrane handbook for systematic reviews and following the PRISMA statement. Bibliographic searches were carried out on the databases PubMed, ISI Web of Science and the Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews. Further references were retrieved from published systematic reviews on the same topic. Included studies were assessed using the Newcastle Ottawa scale. EVIDENCE SYNTHESIS: The bibliographic search yielded 1381 records. A total of 11 studies were included. Three of the included studies were case control studies, while the remaining 8 were cohort studies The overall quality of included studies was high. However, clinical criteria for the diagnosis of dementia, criteria to define and measure and PA and time-reference of exposure were heterogeneous, with some studies considering specific age range of exposure, and other reports dealing with more generic "adult age." CONCLUSIONS: This review suggests that there is insufficient evidence to conclude whether PA in early life may affect the incidence of dementia in later life. Studies in this field are very complicated and recognizing the impact of PA in early life given all the confounding factors is very difficult. Further studies are warranted. In these studies, it will be crucial to define the type, quantity and intensity of PA as well as to stratify analysis by sex, cultures and social classes.

Stacked autoencoders as new models for an accurate Alzheimer's disease classification support using resting-state EEG and MRI measurements.

OBJECTIVE: This retrospective and exploratory study tested the accuracy of artificial neural networks (ANNs) at detecting Alzheimer's disease patients with dementia (ADD) based on input variables extracted from resting-state electroencephalogram (rsEEG), structural magnetic resonance imaging (sMRI) or both. METHODS: For the classification exercise, the ANNs had two architectures that included stacked (autoencoding) hidden layers recreating input data in the output. The classification was based on LORETA source estimates from rsEEG activity recorded with 10-20 montage system (19 electrodes) and standard sMRI variables in 89 ADD and 45 healthy control participants taken from a national database. RESULTS: The ANN with stacked autoencoders and a deep leaning model representing both ADD and control participants showed classification accuracies in discriminating them of 80%, 85%, and 89% using rsEEG, sMRI, and rsEEG + sMRI features, respectively. The two ANNs with stacked autoencoders and a deep leaning model specialized for either ADD or control participants showed classification accuracies of 77%, 83%, and 86% using the same input features. CONCLUSIONS: The two architectures of ANNs using stacked (autoencoding) hidden layers consistently reached moderate to high accuracy in the discrimination between ADD and healthy control participants as a function of the rsEEG and sMRI features employed. SIGNIFICANCE: The present results encourage future multi-centric, prospective and longitudinal cross-validation studies using high resolution EEG techniques and harmonized clinical procedures towards clinical applications of the present ANNs.

Abnormalities of Cortical Sources of Resting State Alpha Electroencephalographic Rhythms are Related to Education Attainment in Cognitively Unimpaired Seniors and Patients with Alzheimer's Disease and Amnesic Mild Cognitive Impairment.

In normal old (Nold) and Alzheimer's disease (AD) persons, a high cognitive reserve (CR) makes them more resistant and resilient to brain neuropathology and neurodegeneration. Here, we tested whether these effects may affect neurophysiological oscillatory mechanisms generating dominant resting state electroencephalographic (rsEEG) alpha rhythms in Nold and patients with mild cognitive impairment (MCI) due to AD (ADMCI). Data in 60 Nold and 70 ADMCI participants, stratified in higher (Edu+) and lower (Edu-) educational attainment subgroups, were available in an Italian-Turkish archive. The subgroups were matched for age, gender, and education. RsEEG cortical sources were estimated by eLORETA freeware. As compared to the Nold-Edu- subgroup, the Nold-Edu+ subgroup showed greater alpha source activations topographically widespread. On the contrary, in relation to the ADMCI-Edu- subgroup, the ADMCI-Edu+ subgroup displayed lower alpha source activations topographically widespread. Furthermore, the 2 ADMCI subgroups had matched cerebrospinal AD diagnostic biomarkers, brain gray-white matter measures, and neuropsychological scores. The current findings suggest that a high CR may be related to changes in rsEEG alpha rhythms in Nold and ADMCI persons. These changes may underlie neuroprotective effects in Nold seniors and subtend functional compensatory mechanisms unrelated to brain structure alterations in ADMCI patients.

Abnormalities of resting-state EEG in patients with prodromal and overt dementia with Lewy bodies: Relation to clinical symptoms.

OBJECTIVE: Here we tested if cortical sources of resting state electroencephalographic (rsEEG) rhythms may differ in sub-groups of patients with prodromal and overt dementia with Lewy bodies (DLB) as a function of relevant clinical symptoms. METHODS: We extracted clinical, demographic and rsEEG datasets in matched DLB patients (N = 60) and control Alzheimer's disease (AD, N = 60) and healthy elderly (Nold, N = 60) seniors from our international database. The eLORETA freeware was used to estimate cortical rsEEG sources. RESULTS: As compared to the Nold group, the DLB and AD groups generally exhibited greater spatially distributed delta source activities (DLB > AD) and lower alpha source activities posteriorly (AD > DLB). As compared to the DLB "controls", the DLB patients with (1) rapid eye movement (REM) sleep behavior disorders showed lower central alpha source activities (p < 0.005); (2) greater cognitive deficits exhibited higher parietal and central theta source activities as well as higher central, parietal, and occipital alpha source activities (p < 0.01); (3) visual hallucinations pointed to greater parietal delta source activities (p < 0.005). CONCLUSIONS: Relevant clinical features were associated with abnormalities in spatial and frequency features of rsEEG source activities in DLB patients. SIGNIFICANCE: Those features may be used as neurophysiological surrogate endpoints of clinical symptoms in DLB patients in future cross-validation prospective studies.

Resting-state electroencephalographic delta rhythms may reflect global cortical arousal in healthy old seniors and patients with Alzheimer's disease dementia.

Extending Basar's theory of event-related EEG oscillations, here we hypothesize that even in quiet wakefulness, transient increases in delta rhythms may enhance global cortical arousal as revealed by the desynchronization of alpha rhythms in normal (Nold) seniors with some derangement in Alzheimer's disease dementia (ADD). Clinical and EEG datasets in 100 ADD and 100 Nold individuals matched as demography, education, and gender were taken from an international archive. Standard delta (< 4 Hz) and alpha1 (8-10.5 Hz) bands were used for the main analysis, while alpha2 (10.5-13 Hz), theta (4-8 Hz), beta1 (13-20 Hz), beta2 (20-35 Hz), and gamma (35-40 Hz) served as controls. In the interpretation, the higher the alpha1 power (density), the lower that arousal. As expected, when compared to the Nold group, the ADD group showed higher global (scalp) power density at the delta-theta band and lower global power density at the alpha-beta bands. As novel findings, we observed that: (1) in the Nold group, the global delta and alpha1-2 power were negatively and linearly correlated; (2) in the ADD group, this correlation was just marginal; and (3) in both Nold and AD groups, the EEG epochs with the highest delta power (median value for stratification) were associated with the lowest global alpha1 power. This effect was related to eLORETA freeware solutions showing maximum alpha1 source activations in posterior cortical regions. These results suggest that even in quiet wakefulness, delta and alpha rhythms are related to each other, and ADD partially affects this cross-band neurophysiological mechanism.

Corrigendum: Perivascular Unit: This Must Be the Place. The Anatomical Crossroad Between the Immune, Vascular and Nervous System.

[This corrects the article DOI: 10.3389/fnana.2020.00017.].