Display of FliC131 on the Surface of Lactococcus lactis as a Strategy to Increase its Adjuvanticity for Mucosal Immunization.

Research on innovative mucosal adjuvants is essential to develop new vaccines for safe mucosal application. In this work, we propose the development of a Lactococcus lactis that expresses a variant of flagellin on its surface (FliC131*), to increase the adjuvanticity of the living cell and cell wall-derived particles (CWDP). We optimized the expression of FliC131*, and confirmed its identity and localization by Western blot and flow cytometry. We also generated CWDP containing FliC131* (CDWP-FliC131*) and evaluated their storage stability. Lastly, we measured the human TLR5 stimulating activity in vitro and assessed the adjuvanticity in vivo using ovalbumin (OVA) as a model antigen. As a result, we generated L. lactis/pCWA-FliC131*, that expresses and displays FliC131* on its surface, obtained the corresponding CWDP-FliC131*, and showed that both activated hTLR5 in vitro in a dose-dependent manner. Furthermore, CWDP-FliC131* retained this biological activity after being lyophilized and stored for a year. Finally, intranasal immunization of mice with OVA plus live L. lactis/pCWA-FliC131* or CWDP-FliC131* induced OVA-specific IgG and IgA in serum, intestinal lavages, and bronchoalveolar lavages. Our work demonstrates the potential of this recombinant L. lactis with an enhanced adjuvant effect, prompting its further evaluation for the design of novel mucosal vaccines.

Rotavirus del grupo A circulantes en el Gran Buenos Aires durante los períodos pre- y post-vacunales / Vaccines against rotavirus and impact of their introduction in Argentina

[RESUMEN]. Hacia 2022, más de 100 países habían introducido una de las cuatro vacunas autorizadas para uso mundial contra rotavirus, sin embargo, según modelos matemáticos se estima que es poco probable que la reducción en mortalidad con vacunas orales supere el 40%. Esto se debe a que la mayoría de las muertes asociadas a RVA ocurren en países de ingresos bajos y medianos, donde la efectividad de estas vacunas es menor. Este problema de desempeño en medios de bajo nivel socio-económico, se verifica también en menor efectividad sobre morbilidad y duración de la protección. En este trabajo se discuten los posible factores involucrados en este bajo rendimiento relacionados al patógeno, el huésped y factores ambientales. En Argentina, la vacuna monovalente Rotarix® (GSK) ha sido incorporada en el Calendario Nacional en 2015, sin embargo, aún no existen estudios completos de efectividad. Las observaciones iniciales de nuestro grupo registran una disminución en el número de casos de gastroenteritis aguda requi- riendo hospitalización en el Hospital de Niños Ricardo Gutiérrez (HNRG) a partir del 2015. Para los casos con diagnóstico específico de RVA la diferencia fue cada vez más significativa para los años 2016, 2017 y 2018 (p<<0,05). Comparando las medias anuales en los períodos pre y post vacunales se hallan valores de 104,7 para los años 2008-2014 y de 40,2 para los años 2015-2018 (p<0,05) lo que implica una disminución del 61,6%. También se hallaron diferencias a la baja en el número medio de internaciones por GEA por todas las causas del 19,6%.

[ABSTRACT]. By 2022, more than 100 countries had introduced one of the four vaccines authorized for global use against rotavirus; however, according to mathematical models, it is estimated that the reduction in mortality with oral vaccines is unlikely to exceed 40%. This is because the majority of RVA-associated deaths occur in low- and middle-income countries, where the effectiveness of these vaccines is lower. This performance problem in low socioeconomic environments is also verified in lower effectiveness on morbidity and duration of protection. In this work, the possible factors involved in this low performance related to the pathogen, the host and environmental factors are discussed. In Argentina, the monovalent Rotarix® (GSK) vaccine has been incorporated into the National Schedule in 2015, however, there are still no complete effectiveness studies. The initial observations of our group record a decrease in the number of cases of acute gastroenteritis requiring hospitalization at the Ricardo Gutiérrez Children's Hospital (HNRG) starting in 2015. For cases with a specific diagnosis of RVA, the difference was increasingly significant for the years 2016, 2017 and 2018 (p<<0.05). Comparing the annual averages in the pre- and post-vac- cine periods, values of 104.7 are found for the years 2008-2014 and 40.2 for the years 2015-2018 (p<0.05), which implies a decrease of 61. 6%. Downward differences were also found in the average number of hospitalizations for AGE due to all causes of 19.6%.

Pre-vaccine rotavirus surveillance in Buenos Aires, Argentina. Characterization of an emergent G1P[8] strain associated to fatal cases in 2014.

Group A rotaviruses (RVA) are the most frequent etiological agents causing severe diarrhea in infants and surveillance of genotype, and genetic characteristics of circulating strains are necessary in order to evaluate vaccine programs. The objectives of this work were to describe G and P genotype from 2012 through 2014 in Buenos Aires, Argentina completing an overview of 19 years of genotype surveillance in our region and to characterize an emerging G1P[8] strain associated with severe cases and five fatalities in 2014. We performed genotyping by RT-PCR. The sequencing of several genes, phylogenetic analyses, and comparative epidemiological data were used to know the origin and phylogenetic relationships of the emerging G1P[8] strain. Along with this report, 19 years of continuous RVA genotype surveillance in Argentina in the pre-vaccine era was covered. During the last year of this surveillance, 2014, a significantly increased incidence of RVA associated gastroenteritis was related to the reemergence of G1P[8] strains, being these ones detected in low frequency in the last nine years. Interestingly, the patients affected were significantly older when compared with those from the last six seasons. Additionally, phylogenetic analysis of several genes infer that these G1P[8] strains were closely related to Asian strains circulating during 2012 and 2013. In addition to this, the suggested extra continental origin for the 2014 G1P[8] strains and the very low circulation of G1 type during nine years probably explain the increased incidence and severity in the gastroenteritis cases and the particular epidemiologic characteristics. In conclusion, this work gives us a whole panorama of the pre-vaccine era of the RVA molecular epidemiology in the most populated region of Argentina. In this way, this work inspires us to continue with this type of studies in the post-vaccination era.

Rotavirus VP6 protein mucosally delivered by cell wall-derived particles from Lactococcus lactis induces protection against infection in a murine model.

Rotaviruses are the primary cause of acute gastroenteritis in children worldwide. Although the implementation of live attenuated vaccines has reduced the number of rotavirus-associated deaths, variance in their effectiveness has been reported in different countries. This fact, among other concerns, leads to continuous efforts for the development of new generation of vaccines against rotavirus.In this work, we describe the obtention of cell wall-derived particles from a recombinant Lactococcus lactis expressing a cell wall-anchored version of the rotavirus VP6 protein. After confirming by SDS-PAGE, Western blot, flow cytometry and electronic immunomicroscopy that these particles were carrying the VP6 protein, their immunogenic potential was evaluated in adult BALB/c mice. For that, mucosal immunizations (oral or intranasal), with or without the dmLT [(double mutant Escherichia coli heat labile toxin LT(R192G/L211A)] adjuvant were performed. The results showed that these cell wall-derived particles were able to generate anti-rotavirus IgG and IgA antibodies only when administered intranasally, whether the adjuvant was present or not. However, the presence of dmLT was necessary to confer protection against rotavirus infection, which was evidenced by a 79.5 percent viral shedding reduction.In summary, this work describes the production of cell wall-derived particles which were able to induce a protective immune response after intranasal immunization. Further studies are needed to characterize the immune response elicited by these particles as well as to determine their potential as an alternative to the use of live L. lactis for mucosal antigen delivery.

Evaluation of the immunogenicity of a recombinant HSV-1 vector expressing human group C rotavirus VP6 protein.

Group C Rotavirus (RVC) has been associated globally with sporadic outbreaks of gastroenteritis in children and adults. RVC also infects animals, and interspecies transmission has been reported as well as its zoonotic potential. Considering its genetic diversity and the absence of effective vaccines, it is important and necessary to develop new generation vaccines against RVC for both humans and animals. The aim of the present study was to develop and characterize an HSV-1-based amplicon vector expressing a human RVC-VP6 protein and evaluate the humoral immune response induced after immunizing BALB/c mice. Local fecal samples positive for RVC were used for isolation and sequencing of the vp6 gene, which phylogenetically belongs to the I2 genotype. We show here that cells infected with the HSV[VP6C] amplicon vector efficiently express the VP6 protein, and induced specific anti-RVC antibodies in mice immunized with HSV[VP6C], in a prime-boost schedule. This work highlights that amplicon vectors are an attractive platform for the generation of safe genetic immunogens against RVC, without the addition of external adjuvants.

Surveillance of group A Rotavirus in Buenos Aires 2008-2011, long lasting circulation of G2P[4] strains possibly linked to massive monovalent vaccination in the region.

BACKGROUND: Group A rotaviruses (RVA) are the most frequent single etiological agents of severe diarrhea in infants. Since 2006 RVA vaccines have been introduced in national schedules of middle and high income countries with substantial declines in rotavirus associated disease burden. However, surveillance must be maintained to, eventually, detect emerging types or variants selected by the new pressure imposed by vaccination. OBJECTIVES: To analyze the molecular epidemiology of group A rotavirus after vaccine introduction in the region in the context of data from more than 15 years of continuous surveillance in Buenos Aires. STUDY DESIGN: RVA positive diarrhea samples collected in Buenos Aires from 2008 to 2011 were genotyped by RT-PCR. Selected samples were sequenced to gain insight on evolution of common and globally emerging human RVA strains. RESULTS: Lineage III G12P[8] strain emerged in 2008 in Buenos Aires and shared co-dominancy with G3 strains during 2009. An atypical long lasting circulation of G2P[4] strains since 2004 reached rates around 80% in 2011 in Buenos Aires. Sequencing of the VP7 and VP4 genes of representative G2P[4] isolates suggests Brazil as the origin of the 2010-2011 strains. CONCLUSIONS: Globally emergent G12 lineage III strains could be established as dominant strains in a very populated area in two years since emergence. In this work it was also shown that the persistence of G2P[4] strains during 8 years could be related to massive immunization with the monovalent vaccine in the region.

Genetic and antigenic evolution profiles of G1 rotaviruses in córdoba, Argentina, during a 27-year period (1980-2006).

Rotavirus G1 strains represent the most common genotype that causes diarrhea in humans and has been incorporated into both, monovalent and multivalent, rotavirus licensed vaccines. The aim of this study was to determine the evolution profile of G1 rotaviruses in Córdoba, Argentina, over a 27-year period (1980-2006). Intragenotype diversity, represented by lineages within rotavirus circulating strains, was observed. Phylogenetic analysis of the VP7-gene of G1 rotavirus clinical strains showed the circulation of G1 lineage IV and V strains in the 1980s, and co-circulation of lineage I and II strains in the 1990s and 2000-2006. The distribution of G1 in lineages could be linked to multiple nucleotide substitutions distributed across lineages that did not correlate with the emergence of G1 antigenic variants. Moreover, temporal lineage distribution was not linked to significant changes in G1 prevalence. Therefore, the continuous and dominant circulation of G1 over time could not be related to the emergence of antigenic variants in the community. Continuous rotavirus surveillance is necessary to understand rotavirus evolution and to measure how genetic and antigenic changes might affect the effectiveness of vaccines in the future.

Antigen vehiculization particles based on the Z protein of Junin virus.

BACKGROUND: Arenavirus matrix protein Z plays an important role in virus budding and is able to generate enveloped virus-like-particles (VLPs) in absence of any other viral proteins. In these VLPs, Z protein is associated to the plasma membrane inner surface by its myristoyl residue. Budding induction and vesicle formation properties can be exploited to generate enveloped VLPs platform. These structures can be designed to carry specific antigen in the inner side or on the surface of VLPs.Vaccines based on VLPs are a highly effective type of subunit vaccines that mimic the overall structure of virus particles in absence of viral nucleic acid, being noninfectious.In this work we assayed the capacity of Junin Z protein to produce VLPs carrying the green fluorescent protein (eGFP), as a model antigen. RESULTS: In this report the Junin Z protein ability to produce VLPs from 293T cells and its capacity to deliver a specific antigen (eGFP) fused to Z was evaluated. Confocal microscopy showed a particular membrane bending in cells expressing Z and a spot welded distribution in the cytoplasm. VLPs were detected by TEM (transmission electron microscopy) and were purified from cell supernatant. The proteinase protection assay demonstrated the VLPs integrity and the absence of degradation of the fused antigen, thus indicating its internal localization. Finally, immunization of mice with purified VLPs produced high titres of anti-eGFP antibodies compared to the controls. CONCLUSIONS: It was proved that VLPs can be generated from cells transfected with a fusion Junin virus Z-eGFP protein in absence of any other viral protein, and the capacity of Z protein to support fusions at the C-terminal, without impairing its budding activity, allowing vehiculization of specific antigens into VLPs.

Improved immune response to recombinant influenza nucleoprotein formulated with ISCOMATRIX.

Current influenza vaccines elicit antibodies effective against homologous strains, but new strategies are urgently needed for protection against emerging epidemic or pandemic strains. Although influenza vaccine candidates based on the viral nucleoprotein (NP) or matrix protein do not elicit sterilizing immunity, they have the advantage of inducing immunity that may cover a larger number of viral strains. In this study, recombinant NP produced in Escherichia coli was purified and formulated in combination with the adjuvant ISCOMATRIX. This formulation increased a NP-specific immunity in mice, with a Th1 profile, and may constitute a promising low-cost influenza vaccine candidate, with ability to stimulate humoral and cellular immune responses..

Molecular epidemiology of group A rotavirus in Buenos Aires, Argentina 2004-2007: reemergence of G2P[4] and emergence of G9P[8] strains.

Detection and characterization of group A rotavirus in Buenos Aires, Argentina, was conducted on 710 fecal samples from children 0-15 years old collected between 2004 and 2007. Rotavirus was detected in 140 (19.7%) samples with G9P[8] (30.0%) and G2P[4] (21.4%) as the most common genotypes. Mixed (G and/or P) infections accounted for 17.9% of the samples and the emerging G12 strain was detected during 2004 (3.5%) and 2007 (2.5%). Genotype G2 was the most prevalent during 2004 (43.9%) and 2007 (57.5%) and G9 during 2005 (58.0%) and 2006 (61.5%). Analysis of genotype prevalences from studies performed since 1996 in the same area showed striking natural fluctuations in G and P genotype frequencies. In particular, G2P[4] strains disappeared after 1999 and reemerged in 2004 to become the predominant strain by 2007 with a concomitant major decrease in G1P[8] prevalence. The VP7 genes from Argentinian G9 and G2 strains were sequenced and phylogenetic analysis was conducted in order to compare with sequences from strains isolated in regional countries reported previously. Several changes in the deduced amino acid sequence in antigenic regions of the VP7 protein from Argentinian and Brazilian strains were identified compared to vaccine strains. Overall, this study revealed relationships in the circulation of rotavirus strains in South American countries and major replacements in dominant genotypes, including the virtual disappearance of G1P[8] strains in a non-vaccinated population. High numbers of mixed infections speeding up evolution, circulation of rare serotypes, and antigenic drift could, eventually, become challenges for new vaccines.

Detection and characterization of group C rotavirus in Buenos Aires, Argentina, 1997-2003.

The role of group C rotaviruses as a cause of diarrhea was examined among children <17 years of age admitted to a Hospital in a suburban area of Buenos Aires, Argentina between 1997 and 2003. A total of 1,579 fecal samples were screened for group A (RVA) and C (RVC) rotaviruses by two in-house ELISA methods at Quilmes University (UNQ-ELISA). Samples positive, doubtful and negative by RVC specific UNQ-ELISA (n = 246) were examined further for RVC by another in-house ELISA (CDC-ELISA), electron microscopy, RT-PCR, nested PCR, and Southern hybridization. Sensitivity, specificity, and predictive values for each test were determined. While the sensitivity was comparable for the nested PCR and CDC-ELISA methods (82.5%), the molecular methods were slightly more specific. Poorly preserved particles were often seen in fecal samples, suggesting that degradation of RNA could be a factor influencing the performance of molecular methods. The incidence of RVC was estimated to be 3% without apparent differences among seasons. RVC infected patients had a significantly (P < 0.001) higher median age (6 years vs. 1 year) than those with RVA infection. Sequence of the RVC VP7 gene from six Argentinean strains and sequences reported previously in different countries showed high nucleotide (94.4-99.9%) sequence identities, indicating a high degree of conservation for human RVC VP7 genes among strains collected on five continents over a period of 17 years. These findings indicate that RVC is a significant cause of diarrhea and it is necessary to develop simple and sensitive serological methods for its detection.

Characterization of genotype P[9]G12 rotavirus strains from Argentina: high similarity with Japanese and Korean G12 strains.

The circulation of the unusual P[9]G12 strains was previously reported in suburban Buenos Aires, Argentina and in Far Eastern Asian countries. To examine genetic relationships of these strains the genes coding VP7, VP4, and NSP1 from two Argentine, one Japanese and one Korean P[9]G12 isolates were sequenced and their overall genome relatedness was determined by liquid hybridization. In addition, liquid hybridization was used to compare this group of strains to the previous G12 isolates L26 and Se585, and prototype Wa, DS-1, and AU-1 strains. The genomes of the Argentinean, Japanese and Korean strains were virtually indistinguishable by hybridization assays, suggesting very high sequence relatedness for all 11 segments. Hybridization assays also demonstrated that these four strains belong to the AU-1 genogroup and that their genetic relationship with rotaviruses L26 and Se585 is limited to the VP7 gene. The VP7, VP4, and NSP1 genes of the Argentinean, Japanese and Korean strains were highly homologous to each other and to Thai strain T152 ( approximately 99% identity). These results together with the report of a similar strain detected during 2003 in Brazil are consistent with a recent importation and dissemination of the G12 strains from Far Eastern countries into South America. Increasing reports from several regions of the world demonstrating a variety of different G12 reassortant strains suggests that routine surveillance for this serotype should be conducted to determine its potential for global emergence.

Measles virus-specific antibody levels in individuals in Argentina who received a one-dose vaccine.

In spite of active measles virus (MV) vaccination strategies, reemergence continues to occur, impairing global eradication programs. The immune status against measles was evaluated in 350 vaccinated healthy Argentine children and teenagers who received a single dose of the MV Schwarz strain Lirugen vaccine (Aventis Pasteur). Sera were assessed for immunoglobulin G (IgG) antibodies by a commercial enzyme immunoassay (EIA) (Enzygnost; Behring), an in-house EIA, and neutralization EIA. Results obtained with these methods showed a marked decline in IgG level with increasing age. At 1 to 4 years of age, 84% of children had IgG antibodies above 200 mIU/ml, conventionally accepted as protective levels, whereas only 32% of older children and teenagers had antibody levels exceeding 200 mIU/ml. Moreover, the MV IgG content in the teenage group was significantly lower than the IgG antibody level of the group of younger children (P < 0.0001). In contrast, screening for IgG antibody levels to inactivated tetanus vaccine showed that, on average, 80% of this population was fully protected and that this high level of protection remained through the teenage years. This study suggests that within this population a considerable proportion of individuals had low measles antibody levels that may be insufficient to protect against reinfections or clinical disease.

An immunochemical method for quantitation of Epinotia aporema granulovirus (EpapGV).

Epinotia aporema granulovirus (EpapGV) is a baculovirus that affects E. aporema larvae and has proven to be a good candidate for the biocontrol of this important pest in South America. As part of the quality control of the production of a bioinsecticide based on EpapGV, a sensitive method was developed for the detection and quantitation of the virus. To this end, we used the major occlusion body (OB) protein (granulin) to generate polyclonal antibodies in rabbits. Purified IgG fractions from hyperimmune sera were labeled with biotin and used as detecting antibodies in a double antibody sandwich enzyme linked immunosorbent assays (ELISA). No cross-reactivity was detected with any of the nucleopolyhedroviruses (NPV) tested in this study, while a minor degree of reactivity was observed with the closely related Cydia pomonella granulovirus (CpGV). The performance of the ELISA was satisfactory in terms of sensitivity, detecting as little as 0.53 ng/ml of EpapGV granulin in suspensions of purified virus OB. This represented 2.0x10(4) OB/ml. Granulin was also detected in complex and highly diluted bioinsecticidal formulate mixtures. In time course experiments, the virus was detected as early as 24 h post infection (p.i.). The results of the studies demonstrate that this method is a convenient, rapid and inexpensive alternative for routine detection and quantitation of EpapGV.

A rapid method to produce high yields of purified rotavirus particles.

A rapid purification method of rotavirus particles to high yield retaining the double shelled structure of infectious virus is described. Group A rotavirus (UK strain) was concentrated through a cushion of colloidal silica (rho=1.10 g/cm(3)) or by precipitating with polyethylene glycol 8000. After concentration, infectious rotavirus was cleared from host cell proteins by density equilibrium centrifugation in gradients of colloidal silica using near vertical rotors. Characterisation of purified virus assessed by electron microscopy and poliacrylamide gel electrophoresis (PAGE) revealed the typical wheel shape structure of rotavirus particles and the presence of the 11 segments of dsRNA arranged in the 4-2-3-2 pattern. Presence of rotavirus structural proteins including VP6, VP4 and VP7 from the outer shell, was demonstrated by SDS-PAGE and Western blot using polyclonal and VP6-specific monoclonal antibodies. This method achieved a approximately 1500 fold purification, which retained approximately 80% infectivity depending on the concentration protocol used, while yielding 160 microg of viral protein per each litre of infected cell culture medium. The time required for the isopycnic centrifugation was only 25 min and the entire completion of the method required 3.5 h. The method is simple technically and applicable to the purification of large as well as minute amounts of virus.

Incidence and prevalence of human group C rotavirus infections in Argentina.

The incidence of human group C rotavirus infections among children and adults in Buenos Aires was evaluated by enzyme linked immunosorbent assays (ELISA) based on recombinant group C VP6 protein (Cowden strain). A total of 976 stool samples taken from patients (ages 6 months to 15 years) with acute diarrhea were tested for the presence of group C rotavirus. Among these, only 10 (1.02%) were group C rotavirus positive by enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) confirmed by absorption with group C VP6 antibodies and by RT-PCR for both VP6 and VP7 genes. The average age (5.86 years) was significantly superior to that in group A-infected patients (1.63 years). Previous exposure to this virus was assessed by detecting specific IgG in sera taken from healthy individuals grouped by age. Of 844 sera tested, 425 (50.3%) were group C IgG positive by ELISA, confirmed by Western blot analysis. The rates of IgG positivity for group A and C rotaviruses during the first years of life indicated that infections with group C are frequent in older children (3-5 years), whereas group A infections are prevalent in infants and young children (6-18 months). This study shows that group C rotavirus infections in Argentine children occur later in life than group A and are relatively common in spite of the low detection rate of this virus.