THE EFFECT OF COLD STORAGE OF POTTED AZALEA ON BROAD MITE INFECTION.

In potted azalea (Rhododendron simsii hybrids) the broad mite Polyphagotarsonemus latus (Banks) is considered a severe pest with an important economic impact. Although chemical control is available, permitted acaricides are limited and have a restricted number of applications. Therefore, growers have a keen interest in alternative control measures. Recently, research on the behaviour and population dynamics of P. latus on azalea leaf disks stored at different temperatures indicated that survival and reproductive capacity of broad mite is reduced drastically when temperature drops below 7°C. In Flanders, storage of azalea plants at 3°C is common practice to pause flower development (in function of the date that plants have to be ready for sale) before forcing them to flower in a heated greenhouse. Hence, an experiment was set-up to verify and quantify the effect of cold storage of azalea on broad mite infection. Azalea plants were infected with P. latus and stored at 3°C for 2, 3 or 4 weeks. Then, plants were transferred to a heated greenhouse for 2 weeks to check whether surviving female broad mites were still able to reproduce. The number of P. latus on azalea was assessed before cold treatment, immediately after treatment, and 2 weeks after transfer to the heated greenhouse. Results confirmed that cold storage can play a role in broad mite control as the P. latus population was significantly reduced (up to 90%) immediately after treatment. A further decrease in the number of P. latus during storage in the heated greenhouse indicated that cold treatment during 4 weeks had also an effect on the reproduction capacity of P. latus. We conclude that cold storage of azalea plants (at least 4 weeks at maximum 3°C) should be considered as an additional and alternative control method for P. latus at the end of the azalea production cycle.

Cold storage to overcome dormancy affects the carbohydrate status and photosynthetic capacity of Rhododendron simsii.

Global warming leads to increasing irregular and unexpected warm spells during autumn, and therefore natural chilling requirements to break dormancy are at risk. Controlled cold treatment can provide an answer to this problem. Nevertheless, artificial cold treatment will have consequences for carbon reserves and photosynthesis. In this paper, the effect of dark cold storage at 7 °C to break flower bud dormancy in the evergreen Rhododendron simsii was quantified. Carbohydrate and starch content in leaves and flower buds of an early ('Nordlicht'), semi-early ('M. Marie') and late ('Mw. G. Kint') flowering cultivar showed that carbon loss due to respiration was lowest in 'M. Marie', while 'Mw. G. Kint' was completely depleted of starch reserves at the end of cold treatment. Gene isolation resulted in a candidate gene for sucrose synthase (SUS) RsSus, which appears to be homologous to AtSus3 and had a clear increase in expression in leaves during cold treatment. Photosynthesis measurements on 'Nordlicht' and the late-flowering cultivar 'Thesla' showed that during cold treatment, dark respiration decreased 58% and 63%, respectively. Immediately after cold treatment, dark respiration increased and stabilised after 3 days. The light compensation point followed the same trend as dark respiration. Quantum efficiency showed no significant changes during the first days after cold treatment, but was significantly higher than in plants with dormant flower buds at the start of cold treatment. In conclusion, photosynthesis stabilised 3 days after cold treatment and was improved compared to the level before cold treatment.

MULCHES AND OTHER COVER MATERIALS TO REDUCE WEED GROWTH IN CONTAINER-GROWN NURSERY STOCK.

Due to the recent EU-wide implementation of Integrated Pest Management (IPM), alternative methods to reduce weed growth in container-grown nursery stock are needed to cut back the use of herbicides. Covering the upper layer of the substrate is known as a potential method to prevent or reduce weed growth in plant containers. As a high variety of mulches and other cover materials are on the market, however, it is no longer clear for growers which cover material is most efficient for use in containers. Therefore, we examined the effect on weed growth of different mulches and other cover materials, including Pinus maritima, P. sylvestris, Bio-Top Basic, Bio-Top Excellent, coco chips fine, hemp fibres, straw pellets, coco disk 180LD and jute disk. Cover materials were applied immediately after repotting of Ligustrum ovalifolium or planting of Fagus sylvatica. At regular times, both weed growth and side effects (e.g., plant growth, water status of the substrate, occurrence of mushrooms, foraging of birds, complete cover of the substrate and fixation) were assessed. All examined mulches or other cover materials were able to reduce weed growth on the containers during the whole growing season. Weed suppression was even better than that of a chemical treated control. Although all materials showed some side effects, the impact on plant growth is most important to the grower and depends not only on material characteristics (e.g., biodegradation, nutrient leaching and N-immobilisation) but also on container size and climatic conditions. In conclusion, mulches and other cover materials can be a valuable tool within IPM to lower herbicide use. To enable a deliberate choice of which cover material is best used in a specific situation more research is needed on lifespan and stability as well as on economic characteristics of the materials.

THE INFLUENCE OF VARIABLE TEMPERATURE AND HUMIDITY ON THE PREDATION EFFICIENCY OF P. PERSIMILIS, N. CALIFORNICUS AND N. FALLACIS.

Predatory mites like Phytoseiulus persimilis Athias-Henriot, Neoseiulus californicus McGregor and N. fallacis (Garman) (Acari: Phytoseiidae) are essential in sustainable control strategies of the two-spotted spider mite Tetranychus urticae Koch (Acari: Tetranychidae) in warm greenhouse cultures to complement imited available pesticides and to tackle emerging resistance. However, in response to high energy prices, greenhouse plant breeders have recently changed their greenhouse steering strategies, allowing more variation in temperature and humidity. The impact of these variations on biological control agents is poorly understood. Therefore, we constructed functional response models to demonstrate the impact of realistic climate variations on predation efficiency. First, two temperature regimes were compared at constant humidity (70%) and photoperiod (16L:8D): DIF0 (constant temperature) and DIF15 (variable temperature with day-night difference of 15°C). At mean temperatures of 25°C, DIF15 had a negative influence on the predation efficiency of P. persimilis and N. californicus, as compared to DIF0. At low mean temperatures of 15°C, however, DIF15 showed a higher predation efficiency for P. persimilis and N. californicus. For N. fallacis no difference was observed at both 15°C and 25°C. Secondly, two humidity regimes were compared, at a mean temperature of 25°C (DIFO) and constant photoperiod (16L:8D): RHCTE (constant 70% humidity) and RHALT (alternating 40% L:70%D humidity). For P. persimilis and N. fallacis RHCTE resulted in a higher predation efficiency than RHALT, for N. californicus this effect was opposite. This shows that N. californicus is more adapted to dry climates as compared to the other predatory mites. We conclude that variable greenhouse climates clearly affect predation efficiency of P. persimilis, N. californicus and N. fallacis. To obtain optimal control efficiency, the choice of predatory mites (including dose and application frequency) should be adapted to the actual greenhouse climate.

CLIMATE CONDITIONS AFFECTING THE WITHIN-PLANT SPREAD OF BROAD MITES ON AZALEA.

The broad mite Polyphagotarsonemus latus (Banks) is considered a major pest in potted azalea, Flanders' flagship ornamental crop of Rhododendron simsii hybrids. In addition to severe economic damage, the broad mite is dreaded for its increasing resistance to acaricides. Due to restrictions in the use of broad spectrum acaricides, Belgian azalea growers are left with only three compounds, belonging to two mode of action groups and restricted in their number of applications, for broad mite control: abamectin, milbemectin and pyrethrin. Although P. latus can be controlled with predatory mites, the high cost of this system makes it (not yet) feasible for integration into standard azalea pest management systems. Hence, a maximum efficacy of treatments with available compounds is essential. Because abamectin, milbemectin and pyrethrin are contact acaricides with limited trans laminar flow, only broad mites located on shoot tips of azalea plants will be controlled after spraying. Consequently, the efficacy of chemical treatments is influenced by the location and spread of P. latus on the plant. Unfortunately, little is known on broad mites' within-plant spread or how it is affected by climatic conditions like temperature and relative humidity. Therefore, experiments were set up to verify whether climate conditions have an effect on the location and migration of broad mites on azalea. Broad mite infected azalea plants were placed in standard growth chambers under different temperature (T:2.5-25°C) and relative humidity (RH:55-80%) treatments. Within-plant spread was determined by counting mites on the shoot tips and inner leaves of azalea plants. Results indicate that temperature and relative humidity have no significant effect on the within-plant spread of P. latus. To formulate recommendations for optimal spray conditions to maximize the efficacy of broad mite control with acaricides, further experiments on the effect of light intensity and rain are scheduled.

TESTING SIDE-EFFECTS OF COMMON PESTICIDES ON A. SWIRSKII UNDER GREENHOUSE CIRCUMSTANCES.

If a grower uses predatory mites, and should use chemical compounds, he needs to be very careful in his choice of products. The selected products have to be efficient against the target pest and at the same time compatible with the present beneficial's. Useful tools for such product selection under greenhouse circumstances are side effects lists. These lists are freely available on the websites of producing companies of biological control agents. But not all products (e.g. newly developed ones) have been tested for side effects. Moreover the information already available in these tables is not based on field tests. For this reason, we have developed a protocol for quick screening of side effects of chemical plant protection products under field conditions. For these experiments we have chosen the predatory mite Amblyseius swirskii as test organism, because this is an often used phytoseiid mite, which is very sensitive to pesticides. Hibiscus rosa sinensis is the standard reference plant in our side effects trials because the chosen predatory mite has shown very good control of pests on this plant species. The experimental design consists of eight test objects in 4 replications. Test object 1 is a positive reference (water spray) and test object 2 a negative reference (deltamethrin spray, a product with long residual activity against beneficial organisms). The plot size is 0,68 m2 and each plot contains 32 Hibiscus plants. The greenhouse temperature is set at 20±2°C. The test strategy has the following sequence: introduction of an overdose of Amblyseius swirskii mites 14 days before spraying the pesticides > precount of predatory mites 4 days before application (4DBA) > spray application (A) for the 6 test products and for the 2 references > counting's after application (1, 2, 4, 8 en 12 weeks after application = 1 till 12WAA). The counting's of the number of predatory mites are performed on 20 Hibiscus leaves/plot under a binocular. Because of the absence of any food sources for the A. swirskii mites, it's necessary to re-introduce a high dose of predatory mites in the Hibiscus crop every 4 weeks, especially 2 weeks before the counting's 4, 8 and 12WAA; these introductions are carried out by hanging out 7 sachets with predatory mites (250 mites/sachet or 2500 mites/m2) on each test plot and after 10 days they are removed. In our first experiments the following commercial products have been tested: Pyrethro Pur (rapeseed oil + pyrethrins), Actara (thiamethoxam), Rizolex 500 SC (tolclofos-methyl), Topsin 500 SC (thiophanate-methyl), Floramite 240 SC (bifenazate), Cycocel 75 (chlorrmequat chloride), Vertimec (abamectin), Match (lufenuron), Nocturn (pyridalyl), Neemazal-T/S (azadirachtin), Tracer (spinosad), Envidor (spirodiclofen), Carex 10SC (pyridaben), Nissorun (hexythiazox) and Scelta (cyflumetofen). As expected the water treatment was safest for A. swirskii and deltamethrin killed most of the mites, even if they were re-introduced after 8 or 12 weeks. Also pyrethrins and spinosad showed very negative effects. Abamectin and bifenazate showed intermediate negative effects and should be used with caution. The other products were safe to use in combination with predatory mites. These screening tests will be repeated yearly with new and popular products of which the side effects in practice are currently uncertain.

Cold storage to overcome dormancy affects the carbon balance of azalea.

Flower bud dormancy in azalea (Rhododendron simsii) is broken by artificial cold treatment and this will have its consequences on carbon reserves and photosynthesis. The effect of cold storage at 7 °C on carbohydrate and starch content in leaves and flower buds of an early ('Nordlicht') and semi-early ('M. Marie) flowering cultivar was quantified. Carbon loss due to respiration was lowest for 'M. Marie'. Photosynthetic measurements on 'Nordlicht' showed that photosynthesis 3 days after cold treatment (plants ready to flower) was improved compared to before cold treatment (plants with dormant flower buds).

Therapeutic approach of primary bone tumours by bisphosphonates.

Bone tumours can be dissociated in two main categories: i) primary bone tumours (benign or malignant) including mainly osteosarcoma and other sarcomas.ii)and giant cell tumour and bone metastases originate from others cancer (Breast, prostate, kidney cancer, etc). These tumours are able to destroy or/and induce a new calcified matrix. However, the first step of bone tumour development is associated with an induction of bone resorption and the establishment of a vicious cycle between the osteoclasts and the tumour growth. Indeed, bone resorption contributes to the pathogenesis of bone tumour by the release of cytokines (IL6, TNFα) which govern the bone tumour's development and which are trapped into the bone matrix. Bisphosphonates (BPs) are chemical compounds of P-C-P structure with a high affinity for bone hydroxyapatite crystals. Thus, they have been used as a carrier for radio nucleotides to develop novel approaches of bone imaging. BPs exert also indirect anti-tumour activities in vivo. Indeed, BPs directly interfere with the bone microenvironment and target osteoclasts, endothelial cells and immune cells (tumour-associated macrophages, γ9δ2 T cells). BPs induce tumour cell death in vitro and same activity is suspected in vivo. The present review summarizes the mechanisms of actions of BPs as well as their clinical interests in bone primary tumours.

Effects of sublethal doses of crop protection agents on honey bee (Apis mellifera) global colony vitality and its potential link with aberrant foraging activity.

Honey bees (Apis mellifera) are the most economically valuable pollinators of fruit crops worldwide. Taking into account bees' contributions to other flowering agricultural crops, about one-third of our total diet comes directly or indirectly from bee-pollinated plants. However, in recent years there increasingly have been worrisome alarm sounds on serious bee mortalities and mysterious disappearance of bees from beehives. Among several environmental factors (e.g. climate and bee pathogens), stress factors arising from agricultural practices can potentially play a role in bee losses. Detailed knowledge on the effects of plant protection products is essential to improve usage with minimal risks. In order to identify potential medium- and long-term effects, we followed up various sublethal contaminated hives during the prolongation of the fruit-growing season. More specifically, a large-scale experiment was conducted in which at four distinct locations (in the Limburg region of Belgium) four different bee colonies (representing three different contaminations -imidacloprid, fenoxycarb, indoxacarb- and a non-contaminated control hive) were thoroughly monitored every 2-7 days. Our observations point towards decays of overall colony vitality for several hives a couple of weeks after treatment, as indicated by a set of carefully assessed parameters including the total amount of active and dead bees, total surface of capped brood and overall colony weight. These outcomes could be linked to subtle differences in foraging activity between distinct hives. The implications of these results are discussed in terms of potential short-term and long-term consequences of disturbed foraging ability triggered by exaggerated exposure to sublethal doses of crop protection chemicals, and its potential impact on colony health.

The selectivity in the time of thiacloprid (Calypso 480 SC) applied at preblossom on the further Anthocoris nemoralis population build up in pears.

Predatory bugs (Anthocoris sp.) are key predators of the pear sucker (Psyllo pyri) in pear orchards. In order to enhance biological control it is important to verify if crop protection products applied against Psylla pyri display potential short- or long-term detrimental effects on Anthocoris populations. This study focuses on the impact of thiacloprid (Calypso 480 SC), applied at preblossom for the control of the first generation pear sucker Psylla pyri, on subsequent population build up of Anthocoris nemoralis later in the season. Hereto, five large-scale trials on pear Conference were conducted. Two types of orchards were selected: the first type is surrounded by abundant vegetation from which Anthocorids easily can fly in when attracted by the presence of prey (Psylla pyri); the second type has no "reservoir" vegetation around the orchard and here it is considered that mostly the residential population of Anthocorids constitutes the predation. In all five trials positioning of thiacloprid preblossom did not prevent the normal population build up of the predatory Anthocoris sp. population later in the season. As both in orchards with surrounding vegetation and in orchards without adjacent vegetation a regular build up of the Anthocoris sp. population was observed, the outcomes of this study indicate that a preblossom application of Calypso 480 SC can be considered as "selective in time" for further Anthocoridae dynamics.

Efficacy of fungicides against Phytophthora cactorum on Viola.

Phytophthora cactorum caused significant losses to pansies during the heat wave at the end of the summer of 2006. Infected plants showed foliage that appeared stunted and chlorotic, with wilting occurring even when soil moisture was adequate. When uprooted, symptomatic plants typically possess a surprisingly healthy looking and well-developed root system, but stem and root tissue at the soil interface is discoloured (purple to dark brown) and soft. Older Leaves turn yellow and when the stem base is attacked, the plant dies. Phytophthora cactorum was identified from stem and root tissue with both morphological and molecular techniques. To evaluate the efficacy of different fungicides against this pathogen, healthy plants were infected with zoospores of a Phytophthora cactorum isolate collected from commercial plants. Eleven fungicides were evaluated and compared to an untreated control. Two fungicides were applied via root drenching, 7 days before inoculation with zoospores of P. cactorum. The other fungicides were applied by spraying 24 hours after inoculation with P. cactorum. Preventive drenching with the combined formulation of fenamidone + fosethyl offered the best protection against P. cactorum, while drenching with dimethomorf also resulted in an obvious reduction in the number of infected plants. Foliar application was less successful, as only a combined formulation of mancozeb + metalaxyl-M gave sufficient protection. In conclusion, preventive drenching appears to be the best solution to prevent infection with P. cactorum, especially during warm weather periods, which are conducive to pathogen and disease development.

Side effects of plant protection products and biological interactions on the European earwig Forficula auricularia L.

Plant protection products are designed to control pests but can have negative side effects on non-target arthropods thus disturbing the important population of natural enemies required for biological control. Although the European earwig, Forficula auricularia L, (Dermaptera: Forficulidae) is not considered to be a key beneficial in pome fruit, it is an important predator of several pests, e.g. woolly apple aphid and pear sucker. The impact of non-selective plant protection products at crucial moments in their (univoltine) life cycle can be of significant relevance compared to insects with numerous generations. Foliar applications in spring when nymphs are migrating into the trees can reduce the number of adults in summer and subsequently affect the population size next year. Multiple and/or combined spraying during summer on adults may have a cumulative effect resulting in less over wintering females which possibly exhibit poor reproductive performance. Previous residual contact bioassays already revealed the harmful side effect of several formulated products on adults. Insects showing sub lethal symptoms recovered partially or died eventually. As spinosad caused significant toxicological effects it was subsequently tested in 3 different dose rates on adults and N4-nymphs. We noticed not only a clear dose-response relationship but N4-nymphs proved to be more susceptible than adults; even a dilution of 1/9-th of the registered dose rate still caused a mortality of 45.5 % after 20 days. Understanding the earwig's population dynamics is essential for efficient practical biocontrol. It proves difficult to increase population levels to sufficient high numbers for optimal pest control. Local biological factors might be limiting. Therefore, we tested two hypotheses that pertain to population limitation: 1. Bird predation during summer, 2. Small mammal nest predation during winter. Enclosure experiments showed no negative bird effect on earwig densities unless large bird flocks inhabited the area. Small mammals did not actively predate the over wintering nests, although other predatory arthropods may be important.

Amfor expression in the honeybee brain: a trigger mechanism for nurse-forager transition.

The honeybee's colony fitness relies on an optimized age-dependent division of labor. Transition from nursing activities to foraging activities is associated with an increase in the expression of the Amfor gene. Ben-Shahar et al. [Ben-Shahar, Y., Robichon, A., Sokolowski, M.B., Robinson, G.E., 2002. Influence of gene action across different time scales on behavior. Science 296, 741-744] showed that the Amfor transcripts and their gene products are involved in regulating the transition from one task to the next. In this study, we investigated the trajectory of the expression of this gene in the brain over time. The expression pattern could contribute to our understanding of the involvement of Amfor in the transition process. Is there a gradual increase in transcript or a peak in expression triggering a downstream path of multiple differential gene expression? Hereto, bees were sampled from colonies containing marked 1-day-old bees every 2 or 3 days around the expected time of transition from nurse to forager, from day 13 to 25. To quantify Amfor transcript in the brain, we developed a real-time RT-PCR assay, based on Taqman technology, using fluorescent probes. Results revealed a trigger mechanism rather than a continued elevation of Amfor expression. The appearance of an Amfor expression peak suggests that under normal physiological conditions foraging behavior is, at least in part, due to a trigger-effect of Amfor.

Egg marking in the facultatively queenless ant Gnamptogenys striatula: the source and mechanism.

Conflicts over reproductive division of labour are common in social insects. These conflicts are often resolved via antagonistic actions that are mediated by chemical cues. Dominant egg layers and their eggs can be recognized by a specific yet similar cuticular hydrocarbon profile. In the facultatively queenless ant Gnamptogenys striatula, a worker's cuticular hydrocarbon profile signals its fertility and this determines its position in the reproductive division of labour. How eggs acquire the same hydrocarbon profile is as yet unclear. Here, we search for glandular sources of egg hydrocarbons and identify the putative mechanism of egg marking. We found that eggs carry the same hydrocarbons as the cuticle of fertile workers, and that these hydrocarbons also occur in the ovaries and the haemolymph. None of the studied glands (Dufour, venom, labial and mandibular gland) contained these hydrocarbons. Our results indicate that hydrocarbons are deposited on eggs while still in the ovaries. The low hydrocarbon concentration in the ovaries, however, suggests they are produced elsewhere and transported through the haemolymph. We also found that fertile workers regularly deposit new hydrocarbons on eggs by rubbing laid eggs with a hairy structure on the abdominal tip from which a non-polar substance is secreted.

Cuticular hydrocarbons provide reliable cues of fertility in the ant Gnamptogenys striatula.

In ca. 150 species of queenless ants, a specialized queen caste is rare or absent, and mated workers take over the role of the queen in some or all of the colonies. Previously, it has been shown that reproduction in queenless ants is regulated by a combination of dominance behavior and chemical fertility signaling. It is unknown, however, whether chemical signals alone can sufficiently regulate reproduction. To investigate this possibility, we studied reproductive regulation in the facultatively queenless ant Gnamptogenys striatula, a species where dominance behavior is rare or absent. Active egg layers and infertile workers showed qualitative and quantitative differences in their cuticular hydrocarbon profile. Five long-chain methyl alkanes, 3,13- and 3,15-dimethyl pentriacontane, 3,13- and 3,15-dimethyl heptentriacontane, and 3,11,15-trimethyl heptentriacontane occurred only on the cuticles of virgin and mated egg layers. Pronounced quantitative differences were found in a further 27 alkenes; alkanes; and mono-, di-, and trimethyl alkanes. Workers that had recently stopped laying eggs had profiles similar to infertile workers, and mating status did not affect this chemical pattern. We conclude that the cuticular hydrocarbon profiles of G. striatula workers provide reliable information about their current fertility. In the interest of colony productivity, this allows reproduction to be regulated without the use of aggression.

Enhancing earwig populations in Belgian orchards.

Earwigs are key generalist predators to a variety of orchard pests. However, the once held believe that earwigs damage and spoil fruits led to control strategies and eventually the loss of large earwig populations in Belgian orchards. In recent years, Integrated and Organic fruit growers have tried to re-establish earwig populations, thus far with little success. We started a study linking various components of orchard management and the earwig life history to identify potential periods in which earwigs are vulnerable and management factors hazardous to earwigs. As a first step, detailed knowledge of earwig phenology in orchards is necessary to identify vulnerable stages in the life cycle. Here we describe the first results from organic apple orchards.

Parasitation of the parasitic wasp Ephedrus Persicae(Frogatt) on the rosy apple aphid Dysaphis Plantaginea (Passerini).

The rosy apple aphid Dysaphis plantaginea is one of the most important leaf sucking pests in pome fruit. As damage, caused by an infestation of a relatively small number of fundatrices in spring, easily exceeds the economic threshold level, pest management is crucial. Besides the use of IPM-compatible pesticides, natural enemies (ladybird beetles, parasitic wasps, saw flies...) can play an additional role in controlling aphids. In Europe, the solitary endoparasitoid Ephedrus persicae (Hymenoptera: Braconidae, Aphidiinae) is the dominant parasitic wasp attacking rosy apple aphid. As this parasitoid develops later than its host, control is determined by the population density and the parasitising efficiency of the wasp. The population increase within a season is determined by generation turnover and parasitizing capacity, a factor poorly understood in E. persicae. To be able to estimate the number of wasps required for successful control the parasitic behaviour was studied in semi-field circumstances. Artificially infested colonies of rosy apple aphid on apple trees grown in a greenhouse, were covered with cages of gauze in which young, mated female parasitic wasps were released. The number of aphids (alatae, apterae and mummies) as well as the number of adult parasitic wasps were recorded weekly until the end of infestation or parasitation. This test method allowed a comparison of the parasitizing efficacy of Ephedrus with that of the well-studied parasitoid Aphelinus mali (Haldeman), that efficiently controls the woolly aphid Eriosoma lanigerum (Hausmann).

Field studies to determine the effects of spinosad on the predatory bugs Anthocoris nemoralis and A. nemorum.

The predatory bugs Anthocoris nemoralis and A. nemorum are important predators of the pear psylla (Psylla pyri) in pear orchards. To effectively control psylla infestations the use of insecticide treatments are often necessary so it is desirable to adopt products and use patterns which protect or conserve natural predator populations. Spinosad (the active ingredient in TRACER* insecticide) is highly active on psylla when applied up to two times after flowering. To investigate the effects of spinosad on A. nemoralis and A. nemorum a series of field trials were conducted between 1998 and 2005 in pear. Findings from these trials showed that spinosad applied at the psylla rate may cause minor short term effects on A. nemoralis and A. nemorum specifically to very young (or recently hatched) nymphs. However, due to the rapid photodegradation of spinosad recovery of predatory bug populations follows a few days after final application. The occasional depressive effect due to spinosad applications was considered to be due mainly to the removal of the pear psylla prey as spinosad has excellent efficacy on this pest. Findings from the trials demonstrated that predatory bug populations recover rapidly within a few days after the second application in order to control any new pear psylla attack. Therefore, spinosad can be considered as a valuable new tool for controlling pear psylla populations in pear orchards and to be compatible with augmented biological control by the predatory bug population.

Alternatives to copper in Scab control affect mineral composition in leaves and fruits of apple varieties with reduced Scab susceptibility or Scab resistance.

Scab (Venturia inaequalis) is the principal disease endangering both integrated and organic apple production. Scab pressure tends to build up over the years and organic farmers rely mainly on copper and sulphur treatments for control. The use of Cu in crop protection received scrutiny in recent years as this metal tends to accumulate in soil and substrates. A number of alternative organic control substances have been proposed, with variable success in scab control. We investigated the effect of these alternative organic scab control measures on several apple varieties with low scab susceptibility. The choice of scab treatments had important effects on the mineral composition of leaves and fruits. As these values affect current and future yield in perennial crops, as well as storage quality, the use of certain scab control agents requires corrective application of nutrients during and in-between growth seasons.

A new type of exocrine gland and its function in mass recruitment in the ant Cylindromyrmex whymperi (Formicidae, Cerapachyinae).

Workers of the ant Cylindromyrmex whymperi display mass trail recruitment. Bioassays show that the trail pheromone originates from a unique gland between abdominal sternites 6 and 7. The gland has a hitherto unknown structural organization. Upon leaving the secretory cell, the duct cell widens to form a sclerotized pear-shaped reservoir chamber, lined with multiple duct cells. Each duct thus forms a miniature reservoir for the secretions of each single secretory cells, a novel structural arrangement in exocrine glands of social Hymenoptera.