The impact of inflammation on bronchial neuronal networks.

It is well-recognized that the activities of airway neuronal systems can be modulated by various agonist molecules. This brief review examines some of the evidence that inflammation and some of the mediators relevant to the expression of inflammatory processes can also significantly alter the function and activities of airway nerves. The concept of neuronal plasticity and phenotype switching induced by inflammation is also examined, with particular emphasis on sensory airway nerves.

Differential modulation of endothelin ligand-induced contraction in isolated tracheae from endothelin B (ET(B)) receptor knockout mice.

The role of endothelin B (ET(B)) receptors in mediating ET ligand-induced contractions in mouse trachea was examined in ET(B) receptor knockout animals. Autoradiographic binding studies, using [(125)I]-ET-1, confirmed the presence of ET(A) receptors in tracheal and bronchial airway smooth muscle from wild-type (+/+) and homozygous recessive (-/-) ET(B) receptor knockout mice. In contrast, ET(B) receptors were not detected in airway tissues from (-/-) mice. In tracheae from (+/+) mice, the rank order of potencies of the ET ligands was sarafotoxin (Stx) S6c>ET-1>ET-3; Stx S6c had a lower efficacy than ET-1 or ET-3. In tissues from (-/-) mice there was no response to Stx S6c (up to 0.1 microM), whereas the maximum responses and potencies of ET-1 and ET-3 were similar to those in (+/+) tracheae. ET-3 concentration-response curve was biphasic in (+/+) tissues (via ET(A) and ET(B) receptor activation), and monophasic in (-/-) preparations (via stimulation of only ET(A) receptors). In (+/+) preparations SB 234551 (1 nM), an ET(A) receptor-selective antagonist, inhibited the secondary phase, but not the first phase, of the ET-3 concentration-response curve, whereas A192621 (100 nM), an ET(B) receptor-selective antagonist, had the opposite effect. In (-/-) tissues SB 234551 (1 nM), but not A192621 (100 nM), produced a rightward shift in ET-3 concentration-response curves. The results confirm the significant influence of both ET(A) and ET(B) receptors in mediating ET-1-induced contractions in mouse trachea. Furthermore, the data do not support the hypothesis of atypical ET(B) receptors. In this preparation ET-3 is not an ET(B) receptor-selective ligand, producing contractions via activation of both ET(A) and ET(B) receptors.

Influence of endothelin-1(1-31) on smooth muscle tone and cholinergic nerve-mediated contraction in rat isolated trachea.

Endothelin-1(1-21) (ET-1(1-21)) is a strong candidate as a significant mediator in asthma, in part because of its powerful spasmogenic actions and its ability to enhance cholinergic nerve-mediated contraction in human and animal airway smooth muscle. In the study reported here, we have demonstrated that [125I]ET-1(1-31) binds specifically to BQ-123-sensitive sites (presumably ET(A)-receptors) and to sarafotoxin S6c (S6c)-sensitive sites (presumably ET(B)-receptors) in rat tracheal and pulmonary airways, as well as in lung alveoli. These sites coexist in tracheal airway smooth muscle and in alveolar tissue in approximately equal proportions. ET-1(1-21) and ET-1(1-31) were equipotent and approximately equally active as spasmogens in rat tracheal smooth muscle. Importantly, both peptides were shown to potentiate cholinergic nerve-mediated rat tracheal contraction, although ET-1(1-31) was less active in this regard. These data are consistent with the idea that ET-1(1-31) could play a significant mediator role in obstructive airway diseases such as asthma.

A possible mediator role for endothelin-1 in respiratory disease.

Endothelin (ET)-1 is an endogenous endothelium-derived peptide, long recognized as a potent vascular smooth muscle spasmogen and mitogen. Strong links have been made between these and other actions of ET-1 and vascular diseases including pulmonary hypertension. Importantly, it is also now established that ET-1 is synthesized in the airway epithelium and that it has a range of effects in the respiratory tract which suggest a significant mediator role in asthma. These actions include airway smooth muscle contraction, bronchoconstriction and proliferation, potentiation of cholinergic neuronal function, mucus hypersecretion of pro-inflammatory activities including the promotion of airway microvascular leakage and oedema. The following is a brief review of the actions of endothelin-1 that suggest a link between endothelin-1 and obstructive airway diseases such as asthma.

Leukaemia inhibitory factor (LIF) upregulates excitatory non-adrenergic non-cholinergic and maintains cholinergic neural function in tracheal explants.

The effect of leukaemia inhibitory factor (LIF) in modulating cholinergic and sensory nerve function was examined using guinea-pig tracheal explants. Specific LIF receptors (LIFR) were immunolocalized to both cholinergic and sensory nerves. Release of SP in culture was not influenced by LIF. Similarly, maximum contraction to carbachol (C(max)) was not influenced by LIF. After 3 h, maximum (E(max)) eNANC-induced contraction in controls was 32+/-2. 5% of C(max). In LIF-treated preparations, E(max) was enhanced to 50+/-4.5% C(max) (P<0.05). Cholinergic nerve-induced contractions after 3 h incubation with LIF were similar to control. After 24 h, control E(max) was 25+/-4.5% C(max) (58% smaller than E(max) at 3 h). In contrast, in LIF-treated preparations, E(max) was 37+/-2.5% C(max), (24% smaller than at 3 h, P<0.05). This did not appear to be due to the effect of LIF on muscarinic M(2) receptor expression or function. Thus LIF appears to differentially influence the function of airway nerves and thus may provide an important link between the immune and neural systems.

Ageing and epithelial integrity as modulators of airway smooth muscle responsiveness to endothelin-1.

This study has examined the effects of animal age on the contractile responsiveness and inositol phosphate-generating capacities of guinea-pig (0-104 weeks) and rat (4-104 weeks) isolated tracheal smooth muscle in response to endothelin-1 (ET-1). The influence of animal age on the specific binding of [125I]ET-1 to guinea-pig and rat isolated tracheal tissue was also examined. The potency (pD2) of ET-1 was three to four times greater in tracheal tissue taken from 4-week-old rats than in similar tissue from 12- to 32-week-old animals, although maximum response (Emax) was not significantly altered. Neither pD2 nor Emax were influenced by ageing in epithelium-intact guinea-pig tracheal preparations. In contrast, removal of the airway epithelium significantly increased the contractile potency of ET-1 by two- to three-fold in tissue from animals of 6-20 weeks of age, but not in tissue from newborn animals. Significant falls in specific [125I]ET-1 grain density with ageing were demonstrated during the maturation phase in both species. In the rat, the decrease between 4 and 12 weeks was reflected in the fall in ET-1 potency at 12 weeks. However, the age-associated reduction in airway smooth muscle ET receptor number in the guinea-pig was not mirrored by significant changes in sensitivity to ET-1, suggesting the presence of a functional receptor reserve. ET-1 (1 nM) caused significant increases in intracellular inositol phosphates, with levels generally higher in rat than in guinea-pig trachea. ET-1-induced inositol phosphate accumulation decreased significantly with respect to animal age in both guinea-pig and rat isolated tracheal tissue. However, this was not correlated with changes in contractile pD2 or Emax. For example, in both rat and guinea-pig, the smallest ET-1-induced increases in intracellular inositol phosphates were measured in airway smooth muscle from the oldest animals tested, although tissue sensitivity to ET-1 was stable in both species after 12 weeks of age. These data suggest that relatively low levels of inositol phosphates were required to elicit Emax, consistent with the presence of more than one signal transduction process.

Detection of endothelin receptors in rat and guinea-pig airway nerves by immunohistochemistry.

We investigated the existence of endothelin (ET) receptor subtypes in airway neurones from the rat and guinea-pig and determined the ability of these receptors to modulate contractile function. Rat tracheal neuron cultures as well as rat and guinea-pig whole mount preparations were labelled with antibodies to the cholinergic nerve marker choline acetyltransferase (ChAT), the neuron specific marker protein gene product 9.5 (PGP 9.5) and to ET(A)and ET(B)receptors. Following incubation with fluorescent secondary antibodies, fluorescence was detected using confocal microscopy with dual emission protocols. Specific fluorescence was detected both in whole mount preparations and neuron cultures, in association with the primary antibodies. Specific fluorescence associated with either ET(A)and ET(B)receptors was colocalized with that for PGP 9.5. Despite the presence of ET(A)and ET(B)receptors on airway nerves, ET-1 failed to significantly alter cholinergic, excitatory or inhibitory non-adrenergic-non-cholinergic nerve-mediated responses in guinea-pig airways. This is in sharp contrast to ET-1-induced potentiation of responses to cholinergic nerve-evoked contraction in rat trachea. Thus, although ET(A)and ET(B)receptors exist in airway cholinergic neurons in whole mount preparations and in primary neuron cultures from rat and guinea-pig trachea, the influence of these receptors on contractile function appears to be species-dependent.

Endothelin-1 potentiates cholinergic nerve-mediated contraction in human isolated bronchus.

That endothelin-1(ET-1) plays a mediator role in asthma is consistent with reports of ET-1-induced potentiation of cholinergic nerve-mediated contraction in airways from various animal species. This study examined the effect of ET-1 on cholinergic contractions in human isolated bronchus. Macroscopically nondiseased human bronchial tissue was obtained from 23 patients with respiratory tumours. An electrical field stimulation (EFS) frequency that produced one third of the contraction at 30 Hz (EFS30) was estimated. The effect of ET-1 on these EFS-evoked contractions was assessed. EFS-evoked contractions were frequency-dependent and abolished by either atropine or tetrodotoxin. Thus, EFS-induced contractions were mediated by acetylcholine from cholinergic nerves. ET-1 (3 nM) potentiated EFS-evoked contractions by 10+/-2% EFS30 (p<0.05) without any significant effect on contractions induced by exogenous acetylcholine. Neither the ET(A) receptor-selective antagonist BQ-123 (3 microM) nor the ET(B) receptor-selective antagonist BQ-788 (10 microM) alone significantly altered ET-1-induced potentiation of EFS-evoked contractions. However, in the combined presence of both BQ-123 and BQ-788, ET-1-induced potentiation of EFS-evoked contractions was abolished. Thus, prejunctional endothelinA and endothelinB receptors appear to mediate endothelin-1-induced potentiation of electrical field stimulation-evoked cholinergic contractions in human bronchus. This suggests another potentially important mechanism through which endothelin-1 could increase bronchial tone in asthma.

The role of endothelin in mediating virus-induced changes in endothelinB receptor density in mouse airways.

Emerging evidence supports a mediator role for endothelin (ET)-1 in airway diseases including asthma. Respiratory tract viral infections, are associated with increased levels of ET and altered ET receptor density and function in murine airways. To determine whether these virus-induced effects are causally linked, perhaps involving ET-1-induced ET(B) receptor downregulation, the current study investigated the influence of in vivo administration of CGS 26303, an ET-converting enzyme inhibitor, on virus-induced changes in ET-content and ET(B) receptor density. CGS 26303 (5 mg x kg(-1) x day(-1)) or placebo was administered to mice via osmotic minipumps implanted subcutaneously. Two days after implantation, mice were inoculated with influenza A/PR-8/34 virus or sham-infected, and all measurements were performed on tissue obtained on the fourth day post-inoculation. Viral infection was associated with elevated levels of immunoreactive ET and decreased densities of ET(B) receptors in murine airways. Both of these effects were attenuated in virus-infected mice that had received CGS 26303. Virus-induced increases in wet lung weight were also inhibited by CGS 26303. Importantly, administration of CGS 26303 had no effect on the titres of infectious virus in the lungs and similarly, viral infection had no effect on the plasma levels of free CGS 26303. In summary, CGS 26303 inhibited the virus-induced changes in both immunoreactive endothelin content and endothelinB receptor density. These findings are consistent with the postulate that the elevated epithelial expression of endothelin-1 during respiratory tract viral infection is a contributing factor in the downregulation of endothelinB receptors in airway smooth muscle. Whether inhibitors of endothelin synthesis attenuate virus-induced exacerbations of asthma or airways hyperresponsiveness remains to be established.

The influence of animal age on beta-adrenoceptor density and function in tracheal airway smooth muscle.

We examined the influence of animal age on the functional response of guinea-pig (0-156 weeks) and rat (4-136 weeks) isolated tracheal tissue to beta-adrenoceptor agonists. In addition, the binding density and affinity of [125I]iodocyanopindolol ([125I]CYP) binding to tracheal tissue was examined with respect to animal age. Significant age-related changes in isoprenaline potency were observed in tracheal ring preparations taken from animals during the early maturation phase of animal growth in the guinea-pig and rat. In addition, in rat isolated tracheal tissue, age-related decreases in fenoterol potency were observed during senescence, but not maturation. The changes in the functional responsiveness of tracheal tissue were not reflected by changes in the binding density or affinity for [125I]cyanopindolol ([125I]CYP) of beta-adrenoceptors, or in changes in specific autoradiographic grain density over smooth muscle tissue. In both guinea-pig and rat, no significant age-related changes in the influence of catechol-O-methyl transferase (COMT) or of extraneuronal uptake inhibition were detected. This study has demonstrated significant age-related changes in the responsiveness of guinea-pig and rat isolated tracheal tissue to beta-adrenoceptor agonists that were not related to changes in the density or affinity of the beta-adrenoceptor population or in the activity of COMT or extraneuronal uptake. The possibility of age-related changes in receptor-signal transduction coupling should be explored.

Age-related changes in muscarinic cholinoceptor function in guinea-pig and rat airways.

The influence of age on muscarinic cholinoceptor-mediated contraction and inositol phosphate accumulation was examined in rat and guinea-pig isolated tracheal tissue. Significant age-related changes in the sensitivity of guinea-pig tracheal tissue to acetylcholine, but not carbachol, were observed in the early maturation phase of growth with a 3.3-fold increase in potency between birth and 2 weeks of age followed by a 3.2-fold fall in potency between 2 and 12 weeks of age. Further ageing did not significantly change the potency of acetylcholine or carbachol. Whilst acetylcholinesterase inhibition caused a significant increase in acetylcholine potency, this was independent of animal age. In rat isolated tracheal tissue, contractile responses to both acetylcholine and carbachol remained unchanged with respect to animal age. Significant age-related decreases in inositol phosphate accumulation were observed in response to carbachol in the guinea-pig and rat and to acetylcholine in guinea-pig but not rat isolated tracheal tissue. This study has demonstrated significant age-related changes in the responsiveness of isolated tracheal tissue to carbachol and acetylcholine which were also species-specific.

Endothelin receptors and calcium translocation pathways in human airways.

Tension and phosphatidyl inositol (PI) turnover experiments were conducted to investigate the receptors and signal transduction pathways responsible for contractions elicited by endothelin (ET) ligands in human bronchus. Nicardipine (1 microM), the L-type calcium channel inhibitor, or incubation in Ca2+-free medium, produced marked inhibition of contractions to the ET(B) receptor-selective agonist, sarafotoxin S6c, and especially those induced by KCl. In contrast, Ca2+-free medium was without appreciable effect against contraction produced by endothelin-1 (ET-1), the non-selective ET(A) and ET(B) receptor agonist. In Ca2+-free medium, ryanodine (10 microM), which inhibits intracellular calcium mobilization, reduced sarafotoxin S6c- and ET-1-induced responses, but was without effect on responses to KCl. Similarly, nickel chloride (Ni2+; 1 mM) caused marked inhibition of contractions induced by sarafotoxin S6c or ET-1, but had no significant effect on KCI concentration-response curves. The mixed ET(A)/ET(B) receptor antagonist SB 209670 (3 microM) inhibited responses to sarafotoxin S6c and ET-1 such that concentration-response curves were shifted rightward, at the 30% maximum response level, by 10.0- and 3.8-fold, respectively, whereas BQ-123 (3 microM), the ET(A) receptor antagonist, was without effect on responses induced by either agonist. ET-1 (1 nM-0.3 microM) caused a concentration-dependent stimulation of PI turnover, whereas sarafotoxin S6c (0.3 nM-0.1 microM) induced only small and variable increases, except at the highest concentration. The increase in PI turnover evoked by ET-1 was inhibited by SB 209670 (3 microM), and also by BQ-123 (3 microM). This is consistent with linkage of ET(A) receptors to activation of inositol phosphate generation in human bronchial smooth muscle cells. Collectively, the data suggest that differences exist in the relative contributions of intracellular and extracellular Ca2+ mobilization mechanisms elicited by ET(A) and ET(B) receptor activation. Thus, sarafotoxin S6c-induced, ET(B) receptor-mediated contraction in human bronchial smooth muscle appears to be dependent, in part, upon extracellular Ca2+, although a significant component of the response was also mediated by intracellular Ca2+ release, including from ryanodine-sensitive stores. ET(A) receptor-mediated contraction of human airway smooth muscle was activated largely via the release of intracellular Ca2+.

Age-related changes in airway responsiveness to phosphodiesterase inhibitors and activators of adenyl cyclase and guanylyl cyclase.

The influence of animal age on the responsiveness of guinea-pig and rat isolated tracheal smooth muscle to the non-selective inhibitors of phosphodiesterase, theophylline and papaverine and to the adenylyl cyclase and soluble guanylyl cyclase activators, forskolin and sodium nitroprusside respectively, was examined. Significant age-related decreases in the potencies of theophylline and papaverine were observed across the age ranges in guinea-pig (2.8- and 3.4-fold decreases respectively) and rat (1.9- and 2.6-fold decreases respectively) trachea, suggesting age-related falls in the activity of phosphodiesterase in these tissues. However, maximum relaxant responses (E(max)) to these agents were not altered with increasing animal age. The relaxant potency of sodium nitroprusside also decreased 4.4-fold across the age range in guinea-pig isolated trachea but not in rat isolated tracheal tissue, suggesting age-related falls in soluble guanylyl cyclase activity in guinea-pig trachea. In contrast, neither forskolin potency nor E(max)changed significantly with increasing age in either guinea-pig or rat tracheal tissue. The present data indicate that ageing in both guinea-pigs and rats was associated with decreased relaxant potency of phosphodiesterase (PDE) inhibitors rather than to changes in adenylyl cyclase activity although reduced soluble guanylyl cyclase activity was also detected in the guinea-pig.

Muscarinic cholinoceptor subtypes mediating tracheal smooth muscle contraction and inositol phosphate generation in guinea pig and rat.

The effects of the muscarinic cholinoceptor antagonists atropine (non-selective), pirenzepine (M1-selective), methoctramine (M2-selective) and 4-diphenylacetoxy-N-methylpiperidine methiodide (4-DAMP; M3-selective) were examined on the responsiveness of guinea pig and rat tracheal tissue to acetylcholine and carbachol. Results indicate that smooth muscle contraction in isolated tracheal tissue from both species was mediated primarily by muscarinic M3 cholinoceptors. The effects of atropine, pirenzepine and 4-DAMP were similar against the contractile actions of acetylcholine and carbachol in both species and in epithelium-intact and epithelium-denuded tissue. In contrast, differences in the effects of methoctramine in antagonising contractile responses to acetylcholine and carbachol were observed between the two species and following epithelium removal in the guinea pig. Thus, whilst this study has found that tracheal smooth muscle contraction in the guinea pig and rat is mediated primarily by muscarinic M3 cholinoceptors, anomalies in the functional inositol phosphate generation results obtained with the muscarinic cholinoceptor antagonists highlight species differences in the actions of acetylcholine and carbachol in eliciting smooth muscle contraction suggesting the possible existence of functional non-M3 muscarinic cholinoceptors.

Confocal microscopy in biomedical research.

Confocal microscopy has allowed a major advance in biological imaging, since it represents a rapid, cost effective means of ecamining thick tissue specimens. In most cases, this involves fluorescence imaging and it is increasingly being used as a basic tool in biomedical research. Confocal microscopy allows the collection of thin optical sections, without the need for physical sectioning of the tissue. Additionally, confocal microscopes can usually produce images with greater sensitivity, contrast and resolution than those produced with normal light microscopes. We attempt to explain how this technology might be better used as a routine research tool. Since high quality, in-focus optical sections of thick tissue preparations can be generated quickly, confocal microscopy, in combination with immunofluorescence histochemistry, can now be used to examine complex three-dimensional distributions of distinct structures within tissues such as nerves within airways. Additionally, ultraviolet confocal microscopy allows the assessment of both dynamic and static phenomena in living cells and tissues. Thus, in addition to the imaging of fluorescence associated with structural elements, confocal microscopes can be used to quantitatively evaluate the distribution and fluxes of intracellular ions like calcium. Rapid, line-scanning confocal microscopes can be used in the assessment of dynamic events. For example, the in vivo imaging of microvascular permeability in airways becomes possible for the first time. By providing examples of some of our uses for confocal microscopy, we might encourage others to explore this relatively new and important texhnology for examining events and structures in single cells, tissue samples and in intact animals.

Endothelins and asthma.

In the decade since endothelin-1 (ET-1) and related endogenous peptides were first identified as vascular endothelium-derived spasmogens, with potential pathophysiological roles in vascular diseases, there has been a significant accumulation of evidence pointing to mediator roles in obstructive respiratory diseases such as asthma. Critical pieces of evidence for this concept include the fact that ET-1 is an extremely potent spasmogen in human and animal airway smooth muscle and that it is synthesised in and released from the bronchial epithelium. Importantly, symptomatic asthma involves a marked enhancement of these processes, whereas asthmatics treated with anti-inflammatory glucocorticoids exhibit reductions in these previously elevated indices. Despite this profile, a causal link between ET-1 and asthma has not been definitively established. This review attempts to bring together some of the evidence suggesting the potential mediator roles for ET-1 in this disease.

A protective role for protease-activated receptors in the airways.

The protection of cells in the upper intestine against digestion by pancreatic trypsin depends on the prostanoid prostaglandin E2 (PGE2) and is mediated by protease-activated receptors in the epithelium. As the airway epithelium is morphologically similar and also expresses one of these receptors, PAR2, and is a major source of PGE2, we reasoned that bronchial epithelial PAR2 might also participate in prostanoid-dependent cytoprotection in the airways. Here we show that activation of PAR2, which co-localizes immunohistochemically with trypsin(ogen) in airway epithelium, causes the relaxation of airway preparations from mouse, rat, guinea-pig and humans by the release of a cyclooxygenase product from the epithelium. This physiological protective response in isolated airways also occurred in anaesthetized rats, where activation of PAR2 caused a marked and prolonged inhibition of bronchoconstriction. After desensitization of PAR2, the response to trypsin recovered rapidly by mechanisms dependent on de novo synthesis and trafficking of proteins. Our results indicate that trypsin released from the epithelium can initiate powerful bronchoprotection in the airways by activation of epithelial PAR2.

Endothelins in health and disease: an overview.

1. There is an ever increasing volume of evidence implicating endothelin-1 and its isoforms in a range of disease processes. These include asthma, pulmonary and essential systemic hypertension, cardiac failure and uterine dysfunction. 2. However, it is also important to realize that the endothelins play an obligatory role in normal cellular proliferation, repair and tissue development. 3. The present brief review focuses on some of the physiological and pathophysiological mediator roles of the endothelins and provides a sketch of the receptor systems and some of the signal transduction pathways that are now known to operate following receptor activation. 4. Importantly, it is now clear that the endothelins, their receptors and synthesis and degradation pathways offer potentially important therapeutic targets.

Altered ETB- but not ETA-receptor density and function in sheep airway smooth muscle cells in culture.

The possibility that significant changes in endothelin (ET)A- and ETB-receptor density and function occur in airway smooth muscle cells (ASMCs) during cell growth and extended cell culture was investigated in sheep tracheal ASMCs. As in intact tracheal smooth muscle tissue from this species, early-passage sheep ASMCs contained a homogeneous population of ETA receptors. However, growth of ASMCs from seeding to postconfluence and repeated passage of ASMCs (6th to 14th passages) was associated with a substantial increase in ETB-receptor density, with no change in ETA-receptor density. ET-1-induced stimulation of ETB receptors increased the intracellular Ca2+ concentration in single ASMCs. Interestingly, a 2-day period of serum deprivation completely eliminated the increase in ETB-receptor density and the ETB receptor-mediated change in intracellular Ca2+ concentration. In summary, growth and repeated passage of sheep ASMCs were associated with a profound and selective increase in the density and function of the ETB receptor, a receptor subtype not present in early-passage ASMCs and not detected in intact sheep tracheal airway smooth muscle.