Medical students' general and radiology-specific motivation: Correlations, stability and associations with learning strategies and ability beliefs.

PURPOSE: This study investigated general and subject-specific motivational beliefs from the perspectives of self-determination theory (i.e. intrinsic, identified, introjected, and extrinsic motivation) and achievement goal theory (i.e. mastery, performance-approach, and -avoidance goal orientation including the respective classroom goal structures), their interrelations, their stability over time, and their associations with desirable outcomes (i.e. deep-level learning strategies, self-concept of ability). It was hypothesized that motivational beliefs are interrelated but demonstrate a distinct correlational pattern depending on whether they were assessed as general or subject-specific motivation. In addition, motivational beliefs were hypothesized to relate to learning strategies and ability beliefs. METHODS: Medical students (n = 146) participated in this longitudinal study with measurement points at the beginning and end of a semester. The questionnaire included established motivational scales to assess motivational beliefs and desirable outcomes. Measurement models were tested using confirmatory factor analyses; correlations of scale means were investigated to assess the nomological network of motivational beliefs. RESULTS: As expected, intrinsic and identified motivation were associated with mastery goal orientation and with desirable outcome variables, such as the use of deep-level learning strategies. General and subject-specific motivation exhibited distinct correlational patterns. Motivation was relatively stable over time. Results did not confirm the factor structure of classroom goal structure. CONCLUSIONS: The study emphasizes the benefit of a subject-specific conceptualization of motivation and the need for a careful adaptation of theoretical constructs from the secondary school context to make them fruitful for the promotion of medical students' motivation. Medical teachers can use established motivational interventions (e.g. using an individual frame of reference for feedback) to support students' adaptive motivational beliefs (e.g. self-determined motivation, mastery goals). Given the subject specificity of motivation, it seems beneficial to promote adaptive motivation in the respective medical specialty regardless of students' general motivational characteristics.

Teachers Between a Rock and a Hard Place: Goal Conflicts Affect Teaching Motivation Mediated by Basic Need Satisfaction.

Teaching is a highly demanding profession that requires handling multiple and potentially contradictory goals. Therefore, it is likely that teachers experience conflict between work-related goals on a daily basis. Intraindividual goal conflict may occur when individuals pursue multiple goals drawing on the same limited resources (resource-based goal conflict), or when two or more goals are incompatible in terms of goal attainment strategy or desired end states (inherent goal conflict). Because goal conflict is typically associated with negative effects such as attenuated motivation and wellbeing, teacher goal conflict may jeopardize teaching motivation. This cross-sectional study investigated the effects of in-service teachers' (N = 302) goal conflicts on their autonomous (intrinsic and identified regulation) and controlled (introjected and extrinsic regulation) teaching motivation and tested the satisfaction of teachers' basic need for autonomy, competence, and relatedness as mediators. In line with our hypotheses, results from structural equation modeling showed that frequently experiencing resource-based goal conflict leads to a lower satisfaction of the basic need for autonomy, which, however, was unrelated to teaching motivation. In contrast, frequently experiencing inherent goal conflict attenuates the satisfaction of the basic need for competence, which, in turn, positively predicted autonomous teaching motivation and negatively predicted extrinsic regulation. As expected, relatedness was not associated with the experience of goal conflict. The discussion focuses on differential effects of the two types of goal conflict on teaching motivation and on the relevance to expand research on teachers' intraindividual goal conflicts.

Motivation towards novel learning content: Perceived similarity of learning content, but not need for cognition, moderates the generalization of motivation.

BACKGROUND: The generalization of established motivation hypothesis states that individuals use established motivational beliefs to predict motivational beliefs regarding novel learning content on the basis of the perceived similarity between academic domains. AIMS: This study tests the generalization hypothesis by investigating the assumed moderating role of the extent of perceived similarity between known and novel learning content and need for cognition (NFC). SAMPLE(S): Participants were adult students (n = 576) from various study programs (Study 1) and non-students (n = 628) of whom the majority held at least a bachelor's degree (Study 2). METHODS: In this prospective correlational survey study, we used online self-report measures to assess participants' self-concept of ability (SCA) and intrinsic task value (ITV) regarding their established and anticipated motivational beliefs regarding a set of school subjects (known learning content) and fields of study (novel learning content), perceptions of similarity, and their NFC. Data was analysed using structural equation modelling with latent interaction variables. RESULTS: We found support for the generalization hypothesis and documented that the perceived similarity moderated the generalizing effect (i.e., SCA and ITV had stronger predictive validity for learning content that was perceived as more similar). However, the results obtained for the moderating effect of NFC were mostly nonsignificant. CONCLUSION: Individuals generalize established motivation regarding known learning content to anticipated motivation regarding novel learning content perceived as being similar. The extent of perceived similarity enhances this effect, whereas NFC does not. Future research should address the underlying automatic and deliberate cognitive processes of generalization.

Long-term Outcome of Subacute Thyroiditis.

BACKGROUND: Subacute thyroiditis (SAT) is a rare inflammatory disease that presents diagnostic challenges. The underlying pathophysiology and prediction of outcomes are elusive. We investigated the long-term follow-up of SAT for up to 30 years and determined predictors for later hypothyroidism. METHODS: SAT outcome data from 127 patients (age: 47.6 ± 11.0 yrs. , BMI: 24.7±4.8 kg/m²) were analyzed retrospectively. Patients with pre-existing and known causes of hypothyroidism unrelated to SAT were excluded. We also excluded patients without an accelerated erythrocyte sedimentation rate. SAT outcome parameters included anterior neck pain or tenderness of the thyroid, inflammation markers, hypoechoic areas in thyroid ultrasound, hyperthyroidism, fine-needle aspiration, and thyroid scan. Pre-treatment TSH-levels, gender, age, ultrasound findings, anti-thyroid antibodies and markers of inflammation were considered as possible predictors of SAT outcome. RESULTS: More than 26.8% of SAT patients developed permanent hypothyroidism within 3 years of treatment. The patient groups later developing hypothyroidism did not differ in age, BMI, pre-treatment TSH levels or initial dosage of prednisolone treatment. However, high cumulative doses of prednisolone were associated with a higher prevalence of hypothyroidism. Also, women were more likely to develop hypothyroidism (OR: 3.18 (95% CI: 1.14-8.65); p=0.0176). CONCLUSIONS: Our study suggests that one-quarter of patients with SAT develop hypothyroidism in the long-term. Hypothyroidism was predicted by high cumulative doses of prednisolone treatment and female gender. The reported lower prevalence of hypothyroidism in other countries may represent the faster establishment of diagnosis, different treatment protocols, or lower susceptibility to loss of thyroid function. Swift establishment of the diagnosis and rapid tapering of steroids may result in a higher proportion of patients with euthyroidism.

The Structure of Academic Self-Concept When Facing Novel Learning Content: Multidimensionality, Hierarchy, and Change.

Academic self-concepts of ability are key factors in promoting education and learning throughout students' school career. Yet we know little about their structure and structural change when students leave high school to face novel academic tasks. The present study investigated the structure and structural change of first-year students' study-related self-concepts of ability. Data stems from a longitudinal study with two measurement points covering the initial study phase (t1: N = 341; age: M = 21.6; SD = 3.56; 57.5% female). Self-concepts were assessed regarding the participants' study program and four of its subordinate subjects. Confirmatory factor analyses and structural equation models were used to compare structural models and to investigate structural stability and directional effects. Results support the assumption of multidimensionality (i.e., distinct self-concepts for different subjects) and hierarchy with a generic field-of-study-specific self-concept at the apex. Specifying generic field-of-study-specific self-concept as a method factor (i.e., indicated by both subject-specific and field-of-study-specific items) was most consistent with theoretical assumptions. The structural model was invariant over the first months at university. Generic field-of-study-specific self-concept and subject-specific self-concepts largely developed independently from one another. The results emphasize the recently suggested conceptualization of generic self-concept as a method factor to reflect self-concept hierarchy. Self-concepts were structurally stable over time. Several significant horizontal effects (i.e., stability within subjects) suggest that students align their self-concepts closely to the curriculum they encounter in educational contexts and, therefore, may benefit from ample feedback on their performance to develop appropriate subject-specific self-concepts.

Aiming at a Moving Target: Theoretical and Methodological Considerations in the Study of Intraindividual Goal Conflict between Personal Goals.

Multiple-goal pursuit and conflict between personal life-defining goals can be considered part of everyday business in most individuals' lives. Given the potentially detrimental effects of goal conflict-for example, impaired well-being or poor performance-the literature on goal conflict is surprisingly scattered due to heterogeneous methodological approaches and technical terms. Little empirical research has addressed the conceptualization of goal conflict against the background of differing understandings from a structure-like and a process-like perspective. In the present article, we outline theoretical foundations of goal conflict from two perspectives: a structure- and a process-like perspective. Based on a comparative analysis and integration of these two perspectives, we systematically review empirical studies on goal conflict over 30 years of research. In doing so, we identify and discuss important conceptual dimensions of goal conflict, namely, goal conflict as a cognitive construct and an experiential instance, a focus on goal interrelations or on specific goal properties, and resource vs. inherent conflict, and the potential of these distinctions to further research on goal conflict. Finally, we present major challenges and pose questions that need to be addressed by future research.

First-Year Students' Initial Motivational Beliefs at University: Predicted by Motivational Beliefs Derived from Within and Out-of-School Experience and Malleable Regardless of the Extent of Students' Out-of-School Experience.

The present study tested how academic self-concept of ability (ASC) and intrinsic task value (ITV) transpose onto novel university programs that depart from traditional subject areas within the framework of expectancy-value theory. The study focused on two potential sources of information used to anticipate one's ASC and ITV regarding new learning content (here: business administration). First, students' experiences from secondary school, especially their ASCs and ITVs established in a school subject they consider similar to business administration-mathematics-should predict their business administration-specific ASC and ITV. Second, students may have gained relevant experience in out-of-school settings such as internships with business companies or commercial vocational training prior to entering higher education. ASC and ITV developed from out-of-school experiences was hypothesized to predict students' business administration-specific ASC and ITV as well. However, the likely mismatch between anticipated and actual experience with new contents should lead to revisions of ASC and ITV after entering university reflected in a presumably lower stability compared to secondary school settings. In addition, the extent of students' out-of-school experience might act as a moderator. Data were collected from 341 first-year students in higher education in Germany before they began their study program and again 3-4 months later. Confirmatory factor analyses support the discriminant validity of the measures used in the study. Results from structural equation modeling show that students' ASC/ITV derived from relevant out-of-school experience make an important contribution to their initial business administration-specific ASC and ITV beyond their mathematics-specific ASC/ITV. Furthermore, both business administration-specific ASC and ITV showed significantly lower stability coefficients over the initial study phase than research from secondary school indicating revisions to them via experience. Multiple-group structural equation modeling showed no moderating effect of the extent of students' out-of-school experience. The discussion focuses on interpretations of the expectancy-value theory that explicitly include motivational beliefs derived from out-of-school settings as antecedents of expectancy and value. With respect to practical implications, results are discussed in the light of student counseling and support to help students develop an adequate picture of a study program's learning contents and overcome initial motivational setbacks.

How do I know what I can do? Anticipating expectancy of success regarding novel academic tasks.

BACKGROUND: After graduation from secondary school, academic tasks (i.e., learning contents) are no longer structured in terms of school subjects (i.e., English, mathematics). Therefore, learners lack past performance and mastery experience to inform their expectancy of success (i.e., ability beliefs) regarding novel tasks. AIMS: In this paper, we investigate how individuals establish expectancy of success regarding novel academic tasks. We hypothesize that individuals draw on ability beliefs regarding known tasks that are deemed similar to novel tasks to estimate expectancy of success (generalization hypothesis). SAMPLE(S): Participants were first-year students (n = 354) in the field of business administration (Study 1), and (Study 2) psychology students predominantly (n = 174). METHODS: In Study 1, we analysed relations between ability beliefs (i.e., academic self-concepts of ability) regarding four school subjects and four fields of study varying in similarity. In Study 2, we assessed mastery experience regarding two school subjects and expectancy of success (i.e., self-efficacy) regarding a fictitious course manipulating participants' similarity judgement. We analysed the data using mainly structural equation modelling. RESULTS: Results support the generalization hypothesis regarding both indicators of expectancy of success (i.e., self-concept and self-efficacy). Subject-specific self-concepts of ability predict study-related self-concepts of ability according to individuals' similarity judgements. Subject-specific mastery experience predicts expectancy of success only if the respective school subject is emphasized in the course description. CONCLUSION: Individuals apparently draw on established ability beliefs regarding known tasks to inform their expectancy of success regarding novel tasks. Findings further our understanding of the development of motivation to learn in adulthood.