RESUMO
The development of safe and effective broad-spectrum antivirals that target the replication machinery of respiratory viruses is of high priority in pandemic preparedness programs. Here, we studied the mechanism of action of a newly discovered nucleotide analog against diverse RNA-dependent RNA polymerases (RdRps) of prototypic respiratory viruses. GS-646939 is the active 5'-triphosphate metabolite of a 4'-cyano modified C-adenosine analog phosphoramidate prodrug GS-7682. Enzyme kinetics show that the RdRps of human rhinovirus type 16 (HRV-16) and enterovirus 71 incorporate GS-646939 with unprecedented selectivity; GS-646939 is incorporated 20-50-fold more efficiently than its natural ATP counterpart. The RdRp complex of respiratory syncytial virus and human metapneumovirus incorporate GS-646939 and ATP with similar efficiency. In contrast, influenza B RdRp shows a clear preference for ATP and human mitochondrial RNA polymerase does not show significant incorporation of GS-646939. Once incorporated into the nascent RNA strand, GS-646939 acts as a chain terminator although higher NTP concentrations can partially overcome inhibition for some polymerases. Modeling and biochemical data suggest that the 4'-modification inhibits RdRp translocation. Comparative studies with GS-443902, the active triphosphate form of the 1'-cyano modified prodrugs remdesivir and obeldesivir, reveal not only different mechanisms of inhibition, but also differences in the spectrum of inhibition of viral polymerases. In conclusion, 1'-cyano and 4'-cyano modifications of nucleotide analogs provide complementary strategies to target the polymerase of several families of respiratory RNA viruses.
RESUMO
The LINE-1 (L1) retrotransposon is an ancient genetic parasite that has written around one-third of the human genome through a 'copy and paste' mechanism catalysed by its multifunctional enzyme, open reading frame 2 protein (ORF2p)1. ORF2p reverse transcriptase (RT) and endonuclease activities have been implicated in the pathophysiology of cancer2,3, autoimmunity4,5 and ageing6,7, making ORF2p a potential therapeutic target. However, a lack of structural and mechanistic knowledge has hampered efforts to rationally exploit it. We report structures of the human ORF2p 'core' (residues 238-1061, including the RT domain) by X-ray crystallography and cryo-electron microscopy in several conformational states. Our analyses identified two previously undescribed folded domains, extensive contacts to RNA templates and associated adaptations that contribute to unique aspects of the L1 replication cycle. Computed integrative structural models of full-length ORF2p show a dynamic closed-ring conformation that appears to open during retrotransposition. We characterize ORF2p RT inhibition and reveal its underlying structural basis. Imaging and biochemistry show that non-canonical cytosolic ORF2p RT activity can produce RNA:DNA hybrids, activating innate immune signalling through cGAS/STING and resulting in interferon production6-8. In contrast to retroviral RTs, L1 RT is efficiently primed by short RNAs and hairpins, which probably explains cytosolic priming. Other biochemical activities including processivity, DNA-directed polymerization, non-templated base addition and template switching together allow us to propose a revised L1 insertion model. Finally, our evolutionary analysis demonstrates structural conservation between ORF2p and other RNA- and DNA-dependent polymerases. We therefore provide key mechanistic insights into L1 polymerization and insertion, shed light on the evolutionary history of L1 and enable rational drug development targeting L1.
Assuntos
Endonucleases , Elementos Nucleotídeos Longos e Dispersos , DNA Polimerase Dirigida por RNA , Transcrição Reversa , Humanos , Microscopia Crioeletrônica , Endonucleases/química , Endonucleases/genética , Endonucleases/metabolismo , Elementos Nucleotídeos Longos e Dispersos/genética , RNA/genética , DNA Polimerase Dirigida por RNA/química , DNA Polimerase Dirigida por RNA/genética , DNA Polimerase Dirigida por RNA/metabolismo , Cristalografia por Raios X , DNA/biossíntese , DNA/genética , Imunidade Inata , Interferons/biossínteseRESUMO
The hepatitis C virus (HCV) nonstructural protein 5B (NS5B) polymerase catalyzes the replication of the (+) single-stranded RNA genome of HCV. In vitro studies have shown that replication can be performed in the absence of a primer. However, the dynamics and mechanism by which NS5B locates the 3'-terminus of the RNA template to initiate de novo synthesis remain elusive. Here, we performed single-molecule fluorescence studies based on protein-induced fluorescence enhancement reporting on NS5B dynamics on a short model RNA substrate. Our results suggest that NS5B exists in a fully open conformation in solution wherefrom it accesses its binding site along RNA and then closes. Our results revealed two NS5B binding modes: an unstable one resulting in rapid dissociation, and a stable one characterized by a larger residence time on the substrate. We associate these bindings to an unproductive and productive orientation, respectively. Addition of extra mono (Na+)- and divalent (Mg2+) ions increases the mobility of NS5B along its RNA substrate. However, only Mg2+ ions induce a decrease in NS5B residence time. Dwell times of residence increase with the length of the single-stranded template, suggesting that NS5B unbinds its substrate by unthreading the template rather than by spontaneous opening.
Assuntos
Hepacivirus , Hepatite C , Humanos , Hepacivirus/genética , Hepacivirus/metabolismo , Nucleotidiltransferases , RNA Viral/genética , RNA Polimerase Dependente de RNA/metabolismo , Proteínas não Estruturais Virais/metabolismoRESUMO
The SARS-CoV-2 RNA-dependent RNA polymerase coordinates viral RNA synthesis as part of an assembly known as the replication-transcription complex (RTC)1. Accordingly, the RTC is a target for clinically approved antiviral nucleoside analogues, including remdesivir2. Faithful synthesis of viral RNAs by the RTC requires recognition of the correct nucleotide triphosphate (NTP) for incorporation into the nascent RNA. To be effective inhibitors, antiviral nucleoside analogues must compete with the natural NTPs for incorporation. How the SARS-CoV-2 RTC discriminates between the natural NTPs, and how antiviral nucleoside analogues compete, has not been discerned in detail. Here, we use cryogenic-electron microscopy to visualize the RTC bound to each of the natural NTPs in states poised for incorporation. Furthermore, we investigate the RTC with the active metabolite of remdesivir, remdesivir triphosphate (RDV-TP), highlighting the structural basis for the selective incorporation of RDV-TP over its natural counterpart adenosine triphosphate3,4. Our results explain the suite of interactions required for NTP recognition, informing the rational design of antivirals. Our analysis also yields insights into nucleotide recognition by the nsp12 NiRAN (nidovirus RdRp-associated nucleotidyltransferase), an enigmatic catalytic domain essential for viral propagation5. The NiRAN selectively binds guanosine triphosphate, strengthening proposals for the role of this domain in the formation of the 5' RNA cap6.
Assuntos
RNA-Polimerase RNA-Dependente de Coronavírus , Microscopia Crioeletrônica , SARS-CoV-2 , Humanos , Antivirais/química , Antivirais/metabolismo , Antivirais/farmacologia , RNA-Polimerase RNA-Dependente de Coronavírus/química , RNA-Polimerase RNA-Dependente de Coronavírus/metabolismo , RNA-Polimerase RNA-Dependente de Coronavírus/ultraestrutura , COVID-19/virologia , Nucleosídeos/metabolismo , Nucleosídeos/farmacologia , RNA Viral/biossíntese , RNA Viral/química , RNA Viral/metabolismo , SARS-CoV-2/enzimologia , Especificidade por Substrato , Guanosina Trifosfato/metabolismo , Capuzes de RNARESUMO
Defective interfering (DI) particles arise during virus propagation, are conditional on parental virus for replication and packaging, and interfere with viral expansion. There is much interest in developing DIs as anti-viral agents. Here we characterize DI particles that arose following serial passaging of SARS-CoV-2 at high multiplicity of infection. The prominent DIs identified have lost ~84% of the SARS-CoV-2 genome and are capable of attenuating parental viral titers. Synthetic variants of the DI genomes also interfere with infection and can be used as conditional, gene delivery vehicles. In addition, the DI genomes encode an Nsp1-10 fusion protein capable of attenuating viral replication. These results identify naturally selected defective viral genomes that emerged and stably propagated in the presence of parental virus.
Assuntos
COVID-19 , Vírus Defeituosos , Humanos , Vírus Defeituosos/genética , SARS-CoV-2/genética , Vírus Defeituosos Interferentes , RNA Viral/genéticaRESUMO
The urgent response to the COVID-19 pandemic required accelerated evaluation of many approved drugs as potential antiviral agents against the causative pathogen, severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2). Using cell-based, biochemical, and modeling approaches, we studied the approved HIV-1 nucleoside/tide reverse transcriptase inhibitors (NRTIs) tenofovir (TFV) and emtricitabine (FTC), as well as prodrugs tenofovir alafenamide (TAF) and tenofovir disoproxilfumarate (TDF) for their antiviral effect against SARS-CoV-2. A comprehensive set of in vitro data indicates that TFV, TAF, TDF, and FTC are inactive against SARS-CoV-2. None of the NRTIs showed antiviral activity in SARS-CoV-2 infected A549-hACE2 cells or in primary normal human lung bronchial epithelial (NHBE) cells at concentrations up to 50 µM TAF, TDF, FTC, or 500 µM TFV. These results are corroborated by the low incorporation efficiency of respective NTP analogs by the SARS-CoV-2 RNA-dependent-RNA polymerase (RdRp), and lack of the RdRp inhibition. Structural modeling further demonstrated poor fitting of these NRTI active metabolites at the SARS-CoV-2 RdRp active site. Our data indicate that the HIV-1 NRTIs are unlikely direct-antivirals against SARS-CoV-2, and clinicians and researchers should exercise caution when exploring ideas of using these and other NRTIs to treat or prevent COVID-19.
Assuntos
Fármacos Anti-HIV , Tratamento Farmacológico da COVID-19 , Infecções por HIV , HIV-1 , Fármacos Anti-HIV/farmacologia , Fármacos Anti-HIV/uso terapêutico , Emtricitabina/farmacologia , Emtricitabina/uso terapêutico , Infecções por HIV/tratamento farmacológico , Humanos , Nucleosídeos/farmacologia , Nucleosídeos/uso terapêutico , Nucleotídeos/farmacologia , Pandemias , RNA Viral , RNA Polimerase Dependente de RNA , SARS-CoV-2 , Tenofovir/farmacologia , Tenofovir/uso terapêuticoRESUMO
Human endogenous retroviruses (HERVs) comprise nearly 8% of the human genome and are derived from ancient integrations of retroviruses into the germline. The biology of HERVs is poorly defined, but there is accumulating evidence supporting pathological roles in diverse diseases, such as cancer, autoimmune, and neurodegenerative diseases. Functional proteins are produced by HERV-encoded genes, including reverse transcriptases (RTs), which could be a contributor to the pathology attributed to aberrant HERV-K expression. To facilitate the discovery and development of HERV-K RT potent and selective inhibitors, we expressed active HERV-K RT and determined the crystal structure of a ternary complex of this enzyme with a double-stranded DNA substrate. We demonstrate a range of RT inhibition with antiretroviral nucleotide analogs, while classic nonnucleoside analogs do not inhibit HERV-K RT. Detailed comparisons of HERV-K RT with other known RTs demonstrate similarities to diverse RT families and a striking similarity to the HIV-1 RT asymmetric heterodimer. Our analysis further reveals opportunities for selective HERV-K RT inhibition.
Assuntos
Antirretrovirais , Descoberta de Drogas , Retrovirus Endógenos , DNA Polimerase Dirigida por RNA , Inibidores da Transcriptase Reversa , Antirretrovirais/química , Antirretrovirais/farmacologia , Retrovirus Endógenos/enzimologia , Retrovirus Endógenos/genética , Genes Virais , Transcriptase Reversa do HIV/química , Humanos , Multimerização Proteica , DNA Polimerase Dirigida por RNA/química , Inibidores da Transcriptase Reversa/química , Inibidores da Transcriptase Reversa/farmacologiaRESUMO
The nucleoside analog remdesivir (RDV) is a Food and Drug Administration-approved antiviral for treatment of severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) infections. Thus, it is critical to understand factors that promote or prevent RDV resistance. We passaged SARS-CoV-2 in the presence of increasing concentrations of GS-441524, the parent nucleoside of RDV. After 13 passages, we isolated three viral lineages with phenotypic resistance as defined by increases in half-maximal effective concentration from 2.7- to 10.4-fold. Sequence analysis identified nonsynonymous mutations in nonstructural protein 12 RNA-dependent RNA polymerase (nsp12-RdRp): V166A, N198S, S759A, V792I, and C799F/R. Two lineages encoded the S759A substitution at the RdRp Ser759-Asp-Asp active motif. In one lineage, the V792I substitution emerged first and then combined with S759A. Introduction of S759A and V792I substitutions at homologous nsp12 positions in murine hepatitis virus demonstrated transferability across betacoronaviruses; introduction of these substitutions resulted in up to 38-fold RDV resistance and a replication defect. Biochemical analysis of SARS-CoV-2 RdRp encoding S759A demonstrated a roughly 10-fold decreased preference for RDV-triphosphate (RDV-TP) as a substrate, whereas nsp12-V792I diminished the uridine triphosphate concentration needed to overcome template-dependent inhibition associated with RDV. The in vitro-selected substitutions identified in this study were rare or not detected in the greater than 6 million publicly available nsp12-RdRp consensus sequences in the absence of RDV selection. The results define genetic and biochemical pathways to RDV resistance and emphasize the need for additional studies to define the potential for emergence of these or other RDV resistance mutations in clinical settings.
Assuntos
Antivirais , Tratamento Farmacológico da COVID-19 , Farmacorresistência Viral , RNA Polimerase Dependente de RNA , SARS-CoV-2 , Monofosfato de Adenosina/análogos & derivados , Alanina/análogos & derivados , Animais , Antivirais/farmacologia , Farmacorresistência Viral/genética , Humanos , Camundongos , Mutação/genética , RNA Viral/genética , RNA Polimerase Dependente de RNA/genética , SARS-CoV-2/efeitos dos fármacos , SARS-CoV-2/genéticaRESUMO
Structure elucidation and total synthesis of five unprecedented terpenoid-alkaloids, the sandacrabins, are reported, alongside with the first description of their producing organism Sandaracinus defensii MSr10575, which expands the Sandaracineae family by only its second member. The genome sequence of S. defensii as presented in this study was utilized to identify enzymes responsible for sandacrabin formation, whereby dimethylbenzimidazol, deriving from cobalamin biosynthesis, was identified as key intermediate. Biological activity profiling revealed that all sandacrabins except congener A exhibit potent antiviral activity against the human pathogenic coronavirus HCoV229E in the three digit nanomolar range. Investigation of the underlying mode of action discloses that the sandacrabins inhibit the SARS-CoV-2 RNA-dependent RNA polymerase complex, highlighting them as structurally distinct non-nucleoside RNA synthesis inhibitors. The observed segregation between cell toxicity at higher concentrations and viral inhibition opens the possibility for their medicinal chemistry optimization towards selective inhibitors.
Assuntos
Antivirais , RNA Polimerases Dirigidas por DNA/antagonistas & inibidores , Myxococcales/química , SARS-CoV-2/efeitos dos fármacos , Antivirais/química , Antivirais/farmacologiaRESUMO
Remdesivir (RDV) is a direct-acting antiviral agent that is approved in several countries for the treatment of coronavirus disease 2019 caused by the severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2. RDV exhibits broad-spectrum antiviral activity against positive-sense RNA viruses, for example, severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus and hepatitis C virus, and nonsegmented negative-sense RNA viruses, for example, Nipah virus, whereas segmented negative-sense RNA viruses such as influenza virus or Crimean-Congo hemorrhagic fever virus are not sensitive to the drug. The reasons for this apparent efficacy pattern are unknown. Here, we expressed and purified representative RNA-dependent RNA polymerases and studied three biochemical parameters that have been associated with the inhibitory effects of RDV-triphosphate (TP): (i) selective incorporation of the nucleotide substrate RDV-TP, (ii) the effect of the incorporated RDV-monophosphate (MP) on primer extension, and (iii) the effect of RDV-MP in the template during incorporation of the complementary UTP. We found a strong correlation between antiviral effects and efficient incorporation of RDV-TP. Inhibition in primer extension reactions was heterogeneous and usually inefficient at higher NTP concentrations. In contrast, template-dependent inhibition of UTP incorporation opposite the embedded RDV-MP was seen with all polymerases. Molecular modeling suggests a steric conflict between the 1'-cyano group of the inhibitor and residues of the structurally conserved RNA-dependent RNA polymerase motif F. We conclude that future efforts in the development of nucleotide analogs with a broader spectrum of antiviral activities should focus on improving rates of incorporation while capitalizing on the inhibitory effects of a bulky 1'-modification.
Assuntos
Monofosfato de Adenosina/análogos & derivados , Alanina/análogos & derivados , Modelos Moleculares , Vírus de RNA/enzimologia , RNA Polimerase Dependente de RNA/antagonistas & inibidores , Monofosfato de Adenosina/química , Monofosfato de Adenosina/farmacologia , Alanina/química , Alanina/farmacologia , Antivirais/farmacologia , Hepacivirus/efeitos dos fármacos , Hepacivirus/enzimologia , Vírus de RNA de Sentido Negativo/efeitos dos fármacos , Vírus de RNA de Sentido Negativo/enzimologia , Vírus Nipah/efeitos dos fármacos , Vírus Nipah/enzimologia , Vírus de RNA de Cadeia Positiva/efeitos dos fármacos , Vírus de RNA de Cadeia Positiva/enzimologia , Vírus de RNA/efeitos dos fármacos , RNA Viral/metabolismo , RNA Polimerase Dependente de RNA/química , RNA Polimerase Dependente de RNA/metabolismo , SARS-CoV-2/efeitos dos fármacos , SARS-CoV-2/enzimologia , Replicação Viral/efeitos dos fármacosRESUMO
Current limitations in the understanding and control of antimicrobial resistance (AMR) in Canada are described through a comprehensive review focusing on: (1) treatment optimization; (2) surveillance of antimicrobial use and AMR; and (3) prevention of transmission of AMR. Without addressing gaps in identified areas, sustained progress in AMR mitigation is unlikely. Expert opinions and perspectives contributed to prioritizing identified gaps. Using Canada as an example, this review emphasizes the importance and necessity of a One Health approach for understanding and mitigating AMR. Specifically, antimicrobial use in human, animal, crop, and environmental sectors cannot be regarded as independent; therefore, a One Health approach is needed in AMR research and understanding, current surveillance efforts, and policy. Discussions regarding addressing described knowledge gaps are separated into four categories: (1) further research; (2) increased capacity/resources; (3) increased prescriber/end-user knowledge; and (4) policy development/enforcement. This review highlights the research and increased capacity and resources to generate new knowledge and implement recommendations needed to address all identified gaps, including economic, social, and environmental considerations. More prescriber/end-user knowledge and policy development/enforcement are needed, but must be informed by realistic recommendations, with input from all relevant stakeholders. For most knowledge gaps, important next steps are uncertain. In conclusion, identified knowledge gaps underlined the need for AMR policy decisions to be considered in a One Health framework, while highlighting critical needs to achieve realistic and meaningful progress.
Assuntos
Anti-Infecciosos , Saúde Única , Animais , Antibacterianos/uso terapêutico , Anti-Infecciosos/uso terapêutico , Farmacorresistência Bacteriana , Política de Saúde , HumanosRESUMO
The treatment of viral infections remains challenging, in particular in the face of emerging pathogens. Broad-spectrum antiviral drugs could potentially be used as a first line of defense. The RNA-dependent RNA polymerase (RdRp) of RNA viruses serves as a logical target for drug discovery and development efforts. Herein we discuss compounds that target RdRp of poliovirus, hepatitis C virus, influenza viruses, respiratory syncytial virus, and the growing data on coronaviruses. We focus on nucleotide analogs and mechanisms of action and resistance.
Assuntos
Antivirais/farmacologia , Nucleotídeos/farmacologia , RNA Polimerase Dependente de RNA/antagonistas & inibidores , Proteínas do Complexo da Replicase Viral/antagonistas & inibidores , Vírus/enzimologia , Replicação ViralRESUMO
The NIH Virtual SARS-CoV-2 Antiviral Summit, held on 6 November 2020, was organized to provide an overview on the status and challenges in developing antiviral therapeutics for coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19), including combinations of antivirals. Scientific experts from the public and private sectors convened virtually during a live videocast to discuss severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) targets for drug discovery as well as the preclinical tools needed to develop and evaluate effective small-molecule antivirals. The goals of the Summit were to review the current state of the science, identify unmet research needs, share insights and lessons learned from treating other infectious diseases, identify opportunities for public-private partnerships, and assist the research community in designing and developing antiviral therapeutics. This report includes an overview of therapeutic approaches, individual panel summaries, and a summary of the discussions and perspectives on the challenges ahead for antiviral development.
Assuntos
Antivirais/uso terapêutico , Tratamento Farmacológico da COVID-19 , SARS-CoV-2/efeitos dos fármacos , Antivirais/farmacologia , COVID-19/virologia , Desenvolvimento de Medicamentos , Humanos , National Institutes of Health (U.S.) , Peptídeo Hidrolases/metabolismo , Inibidores de Proteases/farmacologia , Inibidores de Proteases/uso terapêutico , Estados Unidos , Replicação Viral/efeitos dos fármacosRESUMO
The RNA-dependent RNA polymerase of the severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 is an important target in current drug development efforts for the treatment of coronavirus disease 2019. Molnupiravir is a broad-spectrum antiviral that is an orally bioavailable prodrug of the nucleoside analogue ß-D-N4-hydroxycytidine (NHC). Molnupiravir or NHC can increase G to A and C to U transition mutations in replicating coronaviruses. These increases in mutation frequencies can be linked to increases in antiviral effects; however, biochemical data of molnupiravir-induced mutagenesis have not been reported. Here we studied the effects of the active compound NHC 5'-triphosphate (NHC-TP) against the purified severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 RNA-dependent RNA polymerase complex. The efficiency of incorporation of natural nucleotides over the efficiency of incorporation of NHC-TP into model RNA substrates followed the order GTP (12,841) > ATP (424) > UTP (171) > CTP (30), indicating that NHC-TP competes predominantly with CTP for incorporation. No significant inhibition of RNA synthesis was noted as a result of the incorporated monophosphate in the RNA primer strand. When embedded in the template strand, NHC-monophosphate supported the formation of both NHC:G and NHC:A base pairs with similar efficiencies. The extension of the NHC:G product was modestly inhibited, but higher nucleotide concentrations could overcome this blockage. In contrast, the NHC:A base pair led to the observed G to A (G:NHC:A) or C to U (C:G:NHC:A:U) mutations. Together, these biochemical data support a mechanism of action of molnupiravir that is primarily based on RNA mutagenesis mediated via the template strand.
Assuntos
Antivirais/farmacologia , COVID-19/virologia , Citidina/análogos & derivados , Hidroxilaminas/farmacologia , RNA Viral/genética , SARS-CoV-2/efeitos dos fármacos , SARS-CoV-2/genética , Citidina/farmacologia , Humanos , Mutagênese , Mutação Puntual/efeitos dos fármacos , SARS-CoV-2/metabolismoRESUMO
The nucleotide analogue prodrug remdesivir remains the only FDA-approved antiviral small molecule for the treatment of infection with SARS-CoV-2. Biochemical studies revealed that the active form of the drug targets the viral RNA-dependent RNA polymerase and causes delayed chain-termination. Delayed chain-termination is incomplete, but the continuation of RNA synthesis enables a partial escape from viral proofreading. Remdesivir becomes embedded in the copy of the RNA genome that later serves as a template. Incorporation of an incoming nucleotide triphosphate is now inhibited by the modified template. Knowledge on the mechanism of action matters. Enzymatic inhibition links to antiviral effects in cell cultures, animal models and viral load reduction in patients, which provides the logical chain that is expected for a direct acting antiviral. Hence, remdesivir also serves as a benchmark in current drug development efforts that will hopefully lead to orally available treatments to the benefit of a broader population.
Assuntos
Monofosfato de Adenosina/análogos & derivados , Alanina/análogos & derivados , Antivirais/farmacologia , Antivirais/uso terapêutico , Tratamento Farmacológico da COVID-19 , Monofosfato de Adenosina/farmacologia , Monofosfato de Adenosina/uso terapêutico , Alanina/farmacologia , Alanina/uso terapêutico , RNA-Polimerase RNA-Dependente de Coronavírus/antagonistas & inibidores , RNA-Polimerase RNA-Dependente de Coronavírus/metabolismo , Humanos , Pró-Fármacos/farmacologia , Pró-Fármacos/uso terapêutico , RNA Viral/biossíntese , RNA Viral/efeitos dos fármacos , SARS-CoV-2/efeitos dos fármacos , SARS-CoV-2/enzimologia , SARS-CoV-2/fisiologia , Especificidade por Substrato , Replicação Viral/efeitos dos fármacosRESUMO
Baloxavir marboxil (BXM) is an FDA-approved antiviral prodrug for the treatment of influenza A and B infection and postexposure prophylaxis. The active form, baloxavir acid (BXA), targets the cap-snatching endonuclease (PA) of the influenza virus polymerase complex. The nuclease activity delivers the primer for transcription, and previous reports have shown that BXA blocks the nuclease activity with high potency. However, biochemical studies on the mechanism of action are lacking. Structural data have shown that BXA chelates the two divalent metal ions at the active site, like inhibitors of the human immunodeficiency virus type 1 (HIV-1) integrase or ribonuclease (RNase) H. Here we studied the mechanisms underlying the high potency of BXA and how the I38T mutation confers resistance to the drug. Enzyme kinetics with the recombinant heterotrimeric enzyme (FluB-ht) revealed characteristics of a tight binding inhibitor. The apparent inhibitor constant (Kiapp) is 12 nM, while the I38T mutation increased Kiapp by â¼18-fold. Order-of-addition experiments show that a preformed complex of FluB-ht, Mg2+ ions and BXA is required to observe inhibition, which is consistent with active site binding. Conversely, a preformed complex of FluB-ht and RNA substrate prevents BXA from accessing the active site. Unlike integrase inhibitors that interact with the DNA substrate, BXA behaves like RNase H inhibitors that compete with the nucleic acid at the active site. The collective data support the conclusion that BXA is a tight binding inhibitor and the I38T mutation diminishes these properties.
Assuntos
Dibenzotiepinas/farmacologia , Endonucleases/antagonistas & inibidores , Vírus da Influenza B/efeitos dos fármacos , Influenza Humana/tratamento farmacológico , Influenza Humana/virologia , Morfolinas/farmacologia , Piridonas/farmacologia , RNA Polimerase Dependente de RNA/antagonistas & inibidores , Triazinas/farmacologia , Replicação Viral/efeitos dos fármacos , Antivirais/farmacologia , Domínio Catalítico , Endonucleases/metabolismo , Humanos , Vírus da Influenza B/enzimologia , Vírus da Influenza B/isolamento & purificação , Influenza Humana/enzimologia , RNA Polimerase Dependente de RNA/metabolismo , Proteínas Recombinantes/química , Proteínas Recombinantes/metabolismo , Proteínas Virais/antagonistas & inibidores , Proteínas Virais/metabolismoRESUMO
The RNA-dependent RNA polymerase (RdRp) of norovirus is an attractive target of antiviral agents aimed at providing protection against norovirus-associated gastroenteritis. Here, we perform molecular dynamics simulations of the crystal structure of norovirus RdRp in complex with several known binders, as well as free-energy simulations by free-energy perturbation (FEP) to determine binding free energies of these molecules relative to the natural nucleotide substrates. We determine experimental EC50 values and nucleotide incorporation efficiencies for several of these compounds. Moreover, we investigate the mechanism of inhibition of some of these ligands. Using FEP, we screened a virtual nucleotide library with 121 elements for binding to the polymerase and successfully identified two novel chain terminators.
Assuntos
Norovirus , Antivirais/farmacologia , Simulação de Dinâmica Molecular , Nucleotídeos , RNA Polimerase Dependente de RNARESUMO
Remdesivir is a broad-spectrum antiviral nucleotide prodrug that has been clinically evaluated in Ebola virus patients and recently received emergency use authorization (EUA) for treatment of COVID-19. With approvals from the Federal Select Agent Program and the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention's Institutional Biosecurity Board, we characterized the resistance profile of remdesivir by serially passaging Ebola virus under remdesivir selection; we generated lineages with low-level reduced susceptibility to remdesivir after 35 passages. We found that a single amino acid substitution, F548S, in the Ebola virus polymerase conferred low-level reduced susceptibility to remdesivir. The F548 residue is highly conserved in filoviruses but should be subject to specific surveillance among novel filoviruses, in newly emerging variants in ongoing outbreaks, and also in Ebola virus patients undergoing remdesivir therapy. Homology modeling suggests that the Ebola virus polymerase F548 residue lies in the F-motif of the polymerase active site, a region that was previously identified as susceptible to resistance mutations in coronaviruses. Our data suggest that molecular surveillance of this region of the polymerase in remdesivir-treated COVID-19 patients is also warranted.
Assuntos
Monofosfato de Adenosina/análogos & derivados , Alanina/análogos & derivados , Antivirais/farmacologia , Betacoronavirus/enzimologia , Ebolavirus/enzimologia , RNA Polimerase Dependente de RNA/química , Proteínas não Estruturais Virais/química , Monofosfato de Adenosina/farmacologia , Alanina/farmacologia , Betacoronavirus/química , Linhagem Celular , Tolerância a Medicamentos/genética , Ebolavirus/efeitos dos fármacos , Ebolavirus/genética , Humanos , Modelos Moleculares , Mutação , RNA Polimerase Dependente de RNA/genética , SARS-CoV-2 , Proteínas não Estruturais Virais/genética , Replicação Viral/efeitos dos fármacosRESUMO
Remdesivir (RDV) is a direct-acting antiviral agent that is used to treat patients with severe coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19). RDV targets the viral RNA-dependent RNA polymerase (RdRp) of severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2). We have previously shown that incorporation of the active triphosphate form of RDV (RDV-TP) at position i causes delayed chain termination at position i + 3. Here we demonstrate that the S861G mutation in RdRp eliminates chain termination, which confirms the existence of a steric clash between Ser-861 and the incorporated RDV-TP. With WT RdRp, increasing concentrations of NTP pools cause a gradual decrease in termination and the resulting read-through increases full-length product formation. Hence, RDV residues could be embedded in copies of the first RNA strand that is later used as a template. We show that the efficiency of incorporation of the complementary UTP opposite template RDV is compromised, providing a second opportunity to inhibit replication. A structural model suggests that RDV, when serving as the template for the incoming UTP, is not properly positioned because of a significant clash with Ala-558. The adjacent Val-557 is in direct contact with the template base, and the V557L mutation is implicated in low-level resistance to RDV. We further show that the V557L mutation in RdRp lowers the nucleotide concentration required to bypass this template-dependent inhibition. The collective data provide strong evidence to show that template-dependent inhibition of SARS-CoV-2 RdRp by RDV is biologically relevant.