Telomerase Impinges on the Cellular Response to Oxidative Stress Through Mitochondrial ROS-Mediated Regulation of Autophagy.

Telomerase has cellular functions beyond telomere stabilization, including a role in mitochondria. The function of the catalytic component-TERT-in mitochondria is still unknown, but it seems to play a role in the response to oxidative stress. Here, we interrogated the role of the subcellular localization of TERT to the response to hydrogen peroxide (H2O2) treatment. Using normal human fibroblasts (NHF) expressing non-tagged wild type (WT) human TERT (hTERT) or nuclear localization and function (nuchTERT), a mutant that we previously described as being competent in telomere elongation, while not being able to localize to mitochondria, we found the differential activation of autophagy as a function of hTERT's subcellular localization. Specifically, we found that only cells expressing the mutant had significant increases in autophagy markers as a response to H2O2 challenge. Either the reintroduction of the mitochondrial pool of hTERT or the expression of mitochondrially-targeted catalase in mutant cells blunted the autophagic response under oxidative stress. Interestingly, autophagy activation was also associated with decreased levels of mitochondrial DNA damage. Taken together, these results suggest that the loss of hTERT in mitochondria initiates a signaling cascade that allows for cells to adapt to and cope with the lack of mitochondrial telomerase. Such effects also influence the cellular response to oxidative damage.

Critical Role for Telomerase in the Mechanism of Flow-Mediated Dilation in the Human Microcirculation.

RATIONALE: Telomerase is a nuclear regulator of telomere elongation with recent reports suggesting a role in regulation of mitochondrial reactive oxygen species. Flow-mediated dilation in patients with cardiovascular disease is dependent on the formation of reactive oxygen species. OBJECTIVE: We examined the hypothesis that telomerase activity modulates microvascular flow-mediated dilation, and loss of telomerase activity contributes to the change of mediator from nitric oxide to mitochondrial hydrogen peroxide in patients with coronary artery disease (CAD). METHODS AND RESULTS: Human coronary and adipose arterioles were isolated for videomicroscopy. Flow-mediated dilation was measured in vessels pretreated with the telomerase inhibitor BIBR-1532 or vehicle. Statistical differences between groups were determined using a 2-way analysis of variance repeated measure (n≥4; P<0.05). L-NAME (N(ω)-nitro-L-arginine methyl ester; nitric oxide synthase inhibitor) abolished flow-mediated dilation in arterioles from subjects without CAD, whereas polyethylene glycol-catalase (PEG-catalase; hydrogen peroxide scavenger) had no effect. After exposure to BIBR-1532, arterioles from non-CAD subjects maintained the magnitude of dilation but changed the mediator from nitric oxide to mitochondrial hydrogen peroxide (% max diameter at 100 cm H2O: vehicle 74.6±4.1, L-NAME 37.0±2.0*, PEG-catalase 82.1±2.8; BIBR-1532 69.9±4.0, L-NAME 84.7±2.2, PEG-catalase 36.5±6.9*). Conversely, treatment of microvessels from CAD patients with the telomerase activator AGS 499 converted the PEG-catalase-inhibitable dilation to one mediated by nitric oxide (% max diameter at 100 cm H2O: adipose, AGS 499 78.5±3.9; L-NAME 10.9±17.5*; PEG-catalase 79.2±4.9). Endothelial-independent dilation was not altered with either treatment. CONCLUSIONS: We have identified a novel role for telomerase in re-establishing a physiological mechanism of vasodilation in arterioles from subjects with CAD. These findings suggest a new target for reducing the oxidative milieu in the microvasculature of patients with CAD.

Mitochondrial genome instability and ROS enhance intestinal tumorigenesis in APC(Min/+) mice.

Alterations in mitochondrial oxidative phosphorylation have long been documented in tumors. Other types of mitochondrial dysfunction, including altered reactive oxygen species (ROS) production and apoptosis, also can contribute to tumorigenesis and cancer phenotypes. Furthermore, mutation and altered amounts of mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) have been observed in cancer cells. However, how mtDNA instability per se contributes to cancer remains largely undetermined. Mitochondrial transcription factor A (TFAM) is required for expression and maintenance of mtDNA. Tfam heterozygous knock-out (Tfam(+/-)) mice show mild mtDNA depletion, but have no overt phenotypes. We show that Tfam(+/-) mouse cells and tissues not only possess less mtDNA but also increased oxidative mtDNA damage. Crossing Tfam(+/-) mice to the adenomatous polyposis coli multiple intestinal neoplasia (APC(Min/+)) mouse cancer model revealed that mtDNA instability increases tumor number and growth in the small intestine. This was not a result of enhancement of Wnt/ß-catenin signaling, but rather appears to involve a propensity for increased mitochondrial ROS production. Direct involvement of mitochondrial ROS in intestinal tumorigenesis was shown by crossing APC(Min/+) mice to those that have catalase targeted to mitochondria, which resulted in a significant reduction in tumorigenesis in the colon. Thus, mitochondrial genome instability and ROS enhance intestinal tumorigenesis and Tfam(+/-) mice are a relevant model to address the role of mtDNA instability in disease states in which mitochondrial dysfunction is implicated, such as cancer, neurodegeneration, and aging.

Human telomerase acts as a hTR-independent reverse transcriptase in mitochondria.

Human telomerase reverse transcriptase (hTERT) is localized to mitochondria, as well as the nucleus, but details about its biology and function in the organelle remain largely unknown. Here we show, using multiple approaches, that mammalian TERT is mitochondrial, co-purifying with mitochondrial nucleoids and tRNAs. We demonstrate the canonical nuclear RNA [human telomerase RNA (hTR)] is not present in human mitochondria and not required for the mitochondrial effects of telomerase, which nevertheless rely on reverse transcriptase (RT) activity. Using RNA immunoprecipitations from whole cell and in organello, we show that hTERT binds various mitochondrial RNAs, suggesting that RT activity in the organelle is reconstituted with mitochondrial RNAs. In support of this conclusion, TERT drives first strand cDNA synthesis in vitro in the absence of hTR. Finally, we demonstrate that absence of hTERT specifically in mitochondria with maintenance of its nuclear function negatively impacts the organelle. Our data indicate that mitochondrial hTERT works as a hTR-independent reverse transcriptase, and highlight that nuclear and mitochondrial telomerases have different cellular functions. The implications of these findings to both the mitochondrial and telomerase fields are discussed.

Hit to lead studies on (hetero)arylpyrimidines--agonists of the canonical Wnt-beta-catenin cellular messaging system.

A series of (hetero)arylpyrimidines agonists of the Wnt-beta-catenin cellular messaging system have been prepared. These compounds show activity in U2OS cells transfected with Wnt-3a, TCF-luciferase, Dkk-1 and tk-Renilla. Selected compounds show minimal GSK-3beta inhibition indicating that the Wnt-beta-catenin agonism activity most likely comes from interaction at Wnt-3a/Dkk-1. Two examples 1 and 25 show in vivo osteogenic activity in a mouse calvaria model. One example 1 is shown to activate non-phosphorylated beta-catenin formation in bone.

(1-(4-(Naphthalen-2-yl)pyrimidin-2-yl)piperidin-4-yl)methanamine: a wingless beta-catenin agonist that increases bone formation rate.

A high-throughput screening campaign to discover small molecule leads for the treatment of bone disorders concluded with the discovery of a compound with a 2-aminopyrimidine template that targeted the Wnt beta-catenin cellular messaging system. Hit-to-lead in vitro optimization for target activity and molecular properties led to the discovery of (1-(4-(naphthalen-2-yl)pyrimidin-2-yl)piperidin-4-yl)methanamine (5, WAY-262611). Compound 5 has excellent pharmacokinetic properties and showed a dose dependent increase in the trabecular bone formation rate in ovariectomized rats following oral administration.

An evaluation of the inhibition of human butyrylcholinesterase and acetylcholinesterase by the organophosphate chlorpyrifos oxon.

Acetylcholinesterase (EC 3.1.1.7) and butyrylcholinesterase (EC 3.1.1.8) are enzymes that belong to the superfamily of alpha/beta-hydrolase fold proteins. While they share many characteristics, they also possess many important differences. For example, whereas they have about 54% amino acid sequence identity, the active site gorge of acetylcholinesterase is considerably smaller than that of butyrylcholinesterase. Moreover, both have been shown to display simple and complex kinetic mechanisms, depending on the particular substrate examined, the substrate concentration, and incubation conditions. In the current study, incubation of butyrylthiocholine in a concentration range of 0.005-3.0 mM, with 317 pM human butyrylcholinesterase in vitro, resulted in rates of production of thiocholine that were accurately described by simple Michaelis-Menten kinetics, with a K(m) of 0.10 mM. Similarly, the inhibition of butyrylcholinesterase in vitro by the organophosphate chlorpyrifos oxon was described by simple Michaelis-Menten kinetics, with a k(i) of 3048 nM(-1) h(-1), and a K(D) of 2.02 nM. In contrast to inhibition of butyrylcholinesterase, inhibition of human acetylcholinesterase by chlorpyrifos oxon in vitro followed concentration-dependent inhibition kinetics, with the k(i) increasing as the inhibitor concentration decreased. Chlorpyrifos oxon concentrations of 10 and 0.3 nM gave k(i)s of 1.2 and 19.3 nM(-1) h(-1), respectively. Although the mechanism of concentration-dependent inhibition kinetics is not known, the much smaller, more restrictive active site gorge of acetylcholinesterase almost certainly plays a role. Similarly, the much larger active site gorge of butyrylcholinesterase likely contributes to its much greater reactivity towards chlorpyrifos oxon, compared to acetylcholinesterase.

Up-regulation of P2X4 receptors in spinal microglia after peripheral nerve injury mediates BDNF release and neuropathic pain.

ATP is a known mediator of inflammatory and neuropathic pain. However, the mechanisms by which specific purinergic receptors contribute to chronic pain states are still poorly characterized. Here, we demonstrate that in response to peripheral nerve injury, P2X(4) receptors (P2X(4)R) are expressed de novo by activated microglia in the spinal cord. Using in vitro and in vivo models, we provide direct evidence that P2X(4)R stimulation leads to the release of BDNF from activated microglia and, most likely phosphorylation of the NR1 subunit of NMDA receptors in dorsal horn neurons of the spinal cord. Consistent with these findings, P2X4-deficient mice lack mechanical hyperalgesia induced by peripheral nerve injury and display impaired BDNF signaling in the spinal cord. Furthermore, ATP stimulation is unable to stimulate BDNF release from P2X(4)-deficient mice microglia in primary cultures. These results indicate that P2X(4)R contribute to chronic pain through a central inflammatory pathway. P2X(4)R might thus represent a potential therapeutic target to limit microglia-mediated inflammatory responses associated with brain injury and neurodegenerative disorders.

Maternal depression and infant cortisol: influences of timing, comorbidity and treatment.

BACKGROUND: The current study examines the relationship between maternal depression and infant cortisol concentrations. The potential roles of comorbid maternal anxiety disorders, timing of maternal depression, and maternal treatment with psychotropic medications during pregnancy are addressed. METHODS: Women with 6-month-old infants (105 boys and 84 girls) participated in a laboratory paradigm that included infant saliva collection at six points, noise burst and arm restraint stressor tasks, and a diagnostic interview of the mother. RESULTS: Lifetime history of maternal depression was associated with increased baseline and mean (average) infant cortisol levels. Comorbidity with anxiety disorder was related to infant cortisol reactivity. Peripartum (prepartum and/or postpartum) maternal depression, rather than a pre-pregnancy history of disorder, was associated with higher infant cortisol reactivity. Prenatal and postnatal exposure to maternal disorder had similar effects, but prenatal maternal psychotropic medication treatment appeared to attenuate infant cortisol increases associated with prenatal maternal disorder exposure. CONCLUSIONS: These data suggest that exposure to maternal depression and anxiety during pregnancy and the postpartum period may increase infant salivary cortisol. This maternal depression-infant cortisol association is independent of the effects of delivery complications, and appears to be modulated by prenatal maternal psychotropic treatment.

The putative cannabinoid receptor GPR55 plays a role in mechanical hyperalgesia associated with inflammatory and neuropathic pain.

It has been postulated that the G protein-coupled receptor, GPR55, is a third cannabinoid receptor. Given that the ligands at the CB(1) and CB(2) receptors are effective analgesic and anti-inflammatory agents, the role of GPR55 in hyperalgesia associated with inflammatory and neuropathic pain has been investigated. As there are no well-validated GPR55 tool compounds, a GPR55 knockout (GPR55(-/-)) mouse line was generated and fully backcrossed onto the C57BL/6 strain. General phenotypic analysis of GPR55(-/-) mice revealed no obvious primary differences, compared with wild-type (GPR55(+/+)) littermates. GPR55(-/-) mice were then tested in the models of adjuvant-induced inflammation and partial nerve ligation. Following intraplantar administration of Freund's complete adjuvant (FCA), inflammatory mechanical hyperalgesia was completely absent in GPR55(-/-) mice up to 14 days post-injection. Cytokine profiling experiments showed that at 14 days post-FCA injection there were increased levels of IL-4, IL-10, IFN gamma and GM-CSF in paws from the FCA-injected GPR55(-/-) mice when compared with the FCA-injected GPR55(+/+) mice. This suggests that GPR55 signalling can influence the regulation of certain cytokines and this may contribute to the lack of inflammatory mechanical hyperalgesia in the GPR55(-/-) mice. In the model of neuropathic hypersensitivity, GPR55(-/-) mice also failed to develop mechanical hyperalgesia up to 28 days post-ligation. These data clearly suggest that the manipulation of GPR55 may have therapeutic potential in the treatment of both inflammatory and neuropathic pain.

The voltage-gated sodium channel Na(v)1.9 is an effector of peripheral inflammatory pain hypersensitivity.

We used a mouse with deletion of exons 4, 5, and 6 of the SCN11A (sodium channel, voltage-gated, type XI, alpha) gene that encodes the voltage-gated sodium channel Na(v)1.9 to assess its contribution to pain. Na(v)1.9 is present in nociceptor sensory neurons that express TRPV1, bradykinin B2, and purinergic P2X3 receptors. In Na(v)1.9-/- mice, the non-inactivating persistent tetrodotoxin-resistant sodium TTXr-Per current is absent, whereas TTXr-Slow is unchanged. TTXs currents are unaffected by the mutation of Na(v)1.9. Pain hypersensitivity elicited by intraplantar administration of prostaglandin E2, bradykinin, interleukin-1beta, capsaicin, and P2X3 and P2Y receptor agonists, but not NGF, is either reduced or absent in Na(v)1.9-/- mice, whereas basal thermal and mechanical pain sensitivity is unchanged. Thermal, but not mechanical, hypersensitivity produced by peripheral inflammation (intraplanatar complete Freund's adjuvant) is substantially diminished in the null allele mutant mice, whereas hypersensitivity in two neuropathic pain models is unchanged in the Na(v)1.9-/- mice. Na(v)1.9 is, we conclude, an effector of the hypersensitivity produced by multiple inflammatory mediators on nociceptor peripheral terminals and therefore plays a key role in mediating peripheral sensitization.

Properties of voltage-gated Na+ channels in the human rhabdomyosarcoma cell-line SJ-RH30: conventional and automated patch clamp analysis.

Conventional and automated patch clamp electrophysiology were used to characterise the Na+ current of the SJ-RH30 human rhabdomyosarcoma. In conventional recordings SJ-RH30 cells exhibited a fast activating, fast inactivating Na+ current at potentials positive to -40 mV; in full current-voltage curves maximum current occurred between -20 and -10 mV. Inactivation kinetics at 0 mV were biexponential with time constants of 0.5 and 3.7 ms. Deinactivation at -90 mV also exhibited two kinetic components. Tetrodotoxin (TTX) blocked the Na+ current completely at 1 microM. The NaV 1.4 selective toxin mu-CTx-GIIIB reversibly blocked the Na+ current approximately 60% at 10 microM. Very similar biophysical behaviour was observed in automated patch clamp and conventional recordings. For example, inactivation mid-point was -72+/-2 mV (slope factor 7.2+/-0.2) in automated patch clamp and -74+/-2 mV (slope factor 7.4+/-0.4) with conventional recording. The corresponding values for activation mid-point were -33.2+/-2.4 and -30.3+/-2.7 mV (slope 5.8+/-0.3 and 6.4+/-0.3, respectively). The throughput of the automated method was used to generate additional pharmacological data on inhibition of the Na+ current. TTX inhibited with an IC50 of 23 nM. Mu-CTx-GIIIB also inhibited the channel in a concentration-dependent manner. Inhibition produced by both tetracaine and amitriptyline were shown to be frequency-dependent. Our experiments indicate that the Na+ current of SJ-RH30 cells arises mainly from channels with a phenotype like recombinant NaV 1.4 channels. The suitability of these cells for automated patch clamp suggests they may be useful for higher throughput studies of the interaction of drugs with human skeletal muscle Na+ channels.

Disruption of the P2X7 purinoceptor gene abolishes chronic inflammatory and neuropathic pain.

The P2X(7) purinoceptor is a ligand-gated cation channel, expressed predominantly by cells of immune origin, with a unique phenotype which includes release of biologically active inflammatory cytokine, interleukin (IL)-1beta following activation, and unique ion channel biophysics observed only in this receptor family. Here we demonstrate that in mice lacking this receptor, inflammatory (in an adjuvant-induced model) and neuropathic (in a partial nerve ligation model) hypersensitivity is completely absent to both mechanical and thermal stimuli, whilst normal nociceptive processing is preserved. The knockout animals were unimpaired in their ability to produce mRNA for pro-IL-1beta, and cytometric analysis of paw and systemic cytokines from knockout and wild-type animals following adjuvant insult suggests a selective effect of the gene deletion on release of IL-1beta and IL-10, with systemic reductions in adjuvant-induced increases in IL-6 and MCP-1. In addition, we show that this receptor is upregulated in human dorsal root ganglia and injured nerves obtained from chronic neuropathic pain patients. We hypothesise that the P2X(7) receptor, via regulation of mature IL-1beta production, plays a common upstream transductional role in the development of pain of neuropathic and inflammatory origin. Drugs which block this target may have the potential to deliver broad-spectrum analgesia.

A role for proinflammatory cytokines and fractalkine in analgesia, tolerance, and subsequent pain facilitation induced by chronic intrathecal morphine.

The present experiments examined the role of spinal proinflammatory cytokines [interleukin-1beta (IL-1)] and chemokines (fractalkine) in acute analgesia and in the development of analgesic tolerance, thermal hyperalgesia, and tactile allodynia in response to chronic intrathecal morphine. Chronic (5 d), but not acute (1 d), intrathecal morphine was associated with a rapid increase in proinflammatory cytokine protein and/or mRNA in dorsal spinal cord and lumbosacral CSF. To determine whether IL-1 release modulates the effects of morphine, intrathecal morphine was coadministered with intrathecal IL-1 receptor antagonist (IL-1ra). This regimen potentiated acute morphine analgesia and inhibited the development of hyperalgesia, allodynia, and analgesic tolerance. Similarly, intrathecal IL-1ra administered after the establishment of morphine tolerance reversed hyperalgesia and prevented the additional development of tolerance and allodynia. Fractalkine also appears to modulate the effects of intrathecal morphine because coadministration of morphine with intrathecal neutralizing antibody against the fractalkine receptor (CX3CR1) potentiated acute morphine analgesia and attenuated the development of tolerance, hyperalgesia, and allodynia. Fractalkine may be exerting these effects via IL-1 because fractalkine (CX3CL1) induced the release of IL-1 from acutely isolated dorsal spinal cord in vitro. Finally, gene therapy with an adenoviral vector encoding for the release of the anti-inflammatory cytokine IL-10 also potentiated acute morphine analgesia and attenuated the development of tolerance, hyperalgesia, and allodynia. Taken together, these results suggest that IL-1 and fractalkine are endogenous regulators of morphine analgesia and are involved in the increases in pain sensitivity that occur after chronic opiates.

Selective block of the human 2-P domain potassium channel, TASK-3, and the native leak potassium current, IKSO, by zinc.

Background potassium channels control the resting membrane potential of neurones and regulate their excitability. Two-pore-domain potassium (2-PK) channels have been shown to underlie a number of such neuronal background currents. Currents through human TASK-1, TASK-2 and TASK-3 channels expressed in Xenopus oocytes were inhibited by extracellular acidification. For TASK-3, mutation of histidine 98 to aspartate or alanine considerably reduced this effect of pH. Zinc was found to be a selective blocker of TASK-3 with virtually no effect on TASK-1 or TASK-2. Zinc had an IC(50) of 19.8 microM for TASK-3, at +80 mV, with little voltage dependence associated with this inhibition. TASK-3 H98A had a much reduced sensitivity to zinc suggesting this site is important for zinc block. Surprisingly, TASK-1 also has histidine in position 98 but is insensitive to zinc block. TASK-3 and TASK-1 differ at position 70 with glutamate for TASK-3 and lysine for TASK-1. TASK-3 E70K also had a much reduced sensitivity to zinc while the corresponding reverse mutation in TASK-1, K70E, induced zinc sensitivity. A TASK-3-TASK-1 concatamer channel was comparatively zinc insensitive. For TASK-3, it is concluded that positions E70 and H98 are both critical for zinc block. The native cerebellar granule neurone (CGN) leak current, IK(SO), is sensitive to block by zinc, with current reduced to 0.58 of control values in the presence of 100 microM zinc. This suggests that TASK-3 channels underlie a major component of IK(SO). It has recently been suggested that zinc is released from inhibitory synapses onto CGNs. Therefore it is possible that inhibition of IK(SO) in cerebellar granule cells by synaptically released zinc may have important physiological consequences.