Multi-site investigation of strategies for the clinical implementation of CYP2D6 genotyping to guide drug prescribing.

PURPOSE: A number of institutions have clinically implemented CYP2D6 genotyping to guide drug prescribing. We compared implementation strategies of early adopters of CYP2D6 testing, barriers faced by both early adopters and institutions in the process of implementing CYP2D6 testing, and approaches taken to overcome these barriers. METHODS: We surveyed eight early adopters of CYP2D6 genotyping and eight institutions in the process of adoption. Data were collected on testing approaches, return of results procedures, applications of genotype results, challenges faced, and lessons learned. RESULTS: Among early adopters, CYP2D6 testing was most commonly ordered to assist with opioid and antidepressant prescribing. Key differences among programs included test ordering and genotyping approaches, result reporting, and clinical decision support. However, all sites tested for copy-number variation and nine common variants, and reported results in the medical record. Most sites provided automatic consultation and had designated personnel to assist with genotype-informed therapy recommendations. Primary challenges were related to stakeholder support, CYP2D6 gene complexity, phenotype assignment, and sustainability. CONCLUSION: There are specific challenges unique to CYP2D6 testing given the complexity of the gene and its relevance to multiple medications. Consensus lessons learned may guide those interested in pursuing similar clinical pharmacogenetic programs.

Comparing rewarding and reinforcing properties between 'bath salt' 3,4-methylenedioxypyrovalerone (MDPV) and cocaine using ultrasonic vocalizations in rats.

Abuse of synthetic psychostimulants like synthetic cathinones has risen in recent years. 3,4-Methylenedioxypyrovalerone (MDPV) is one such synthetic cathinone that demonstrates a mechanism of action similar to cocaine. Compared to cocaine, MDPV is more potent at blocking dopamine and norepinephrine reuptake and is readily self-administered by rodents. The present study compared the rewarding and reinforcing properties of MDPV and cocaine using systemic injection dose-response and self-administration models. Fifty kilohertz ultrasonic vocalizations (USVs) were recorded as an index of positive affect throughout experiments. In Experiment 1, MDPV and cocaine dose-dependently elicited 50-kHz USVs upon systemic injection, but MDPV increased USVs at greater rates and with greater persistence relative to cocaine. In Experiment 2, latency to begin MDPV self-administration was shorter than latency to begin cocaine self-administration, and self-administered MDPV elicited greater and more persistent rates of 50-kHz USVs versus cocaine. MDPV-elicited 50-kHz USVs were sustained over the course of drug load-up whereas cocaine-elicited USVs waned following initial infusions. Notably, we observed a robust presence of context-elicited 50-kHz USVs from both MDPV and cocaine self-administering rats. Collectively, these data suggest that MDPV has powerfully rewarding and reinforcing effects relative to cocaine at one-tenth doses. Consistent with prior work, we additionally interpret these data in supporting that MDPV has significant abuse risk based on its potency and subjectively positive effects. Future studies will be needed to better refine therapeutic strategies targeted at reducing the rewarding effects of cathinone analogs in efforts to ultimately reduce abuse liability.

Glutamate carboxypeptidase II (GCPII) inhibitor 2-PMPA reduces rewarding effects of the synthetic cathinone MDPV in rats: a role for N-acetylaspartylglutamate (NAAG).

RATIONALE: Metabotropic glutamate 2 and 3 (mGluR2/3) receptors are implicated in drug addiction as they limit excessive glutamate release during relapse. N-acetylaspartylglutamate (NAAG) is an endogenous mGluR2/3 agonist that is inactivated by the glutamate carboxypeptidase II (GCPII) enzyme. GCPII inhibitors, and NAAG itself, attenuate cocaine-seeking behaviors. However, their effects on the synthetic cathinone 3,4-methylenedioxypyrovalerone (MDPV) have not been examined. OBJECTIVES: We determined whether withdrawal following repeated MDPV administration alters GCPII expression in corticolimbic regions. We also examined whether a GCPII inhibitor (2-(phosphonomethyl)-pentanedioic acid (2-PMPA)), and NAAG, reduce the rewarding and locomotor-stimulant effects of MDPV in rats. METHODS: GCPII was assessed following repeated MDPV exposure (7 days). The effects of 2-PMPA and NAAG on acute MDPV-induced hyperactivity were determined using a locomotor test. We also examined the inhibitory effects of 2-PMPA and NAAG on MDPV-induced place preference, and whether the mGluR2/3 antagonist LY341495 could prevent these effects. RESULTS: MDPV withdrawal reduced GCPII expression in the prefrontal cortex. Systemic injection of 2-PMPA (100 mg/kg) did not affect the hyperactivity produced by MDPV (0.5-3 mg/kg). However, nasal administration of NAAG did reduce MDPV-induced ambulation, but only at the highest dose (500 µg/10 µl). We also showed that 2-PMPA (10-30 mg/kg) and NAAG (10-500 µg/10 µl) dose-dependently attenuated MDPV place preference, and that the effect of NAAG was blocked by LY341495 (3 mg/kg). CONCLUSIONS: These findings demonstrate that MDPV withdrawal produces dysregulation in the endogenous NAAG-GCPII signaling pathway in corticolimbic circuitry. Systemic administration of the GCPII inhibitor 2-PMPA, or NAAG, attenuates MDPV reward.

Synthetic cathinone MDPV downregulates glutamate transporter subtype I (GLT-1) and produces rewarding and locomotor-activating effects that are reduced by a GLT-1 activator.

Synthetic cathinones produce dysregulation of monoamine systems, but their effects on the glutamate system and the influence of glutamate on behavioral effects related to cathinone abuse are unknown. A principal regulator of glutamate homeostasis is glutamate transporter subtype 1 (GLT-1), an astrocytic protein that clears glutamate from the extracellular space and influences behavioral effects of established psychostimulants. We hypothesized that repeated administration of the synthetic cathinone, MDPV (3,4-methylenedioxypyrovalerone), would affect GLT-1 expression in the corticolimbic circuit, and that a GLT-1 activator (ceftriaxone, CTX) would reduce rewarding and locomotor-stimulant effects of MDPV in rats. GLT-1 protein expression in the nucleus accumbens (NAcc), but not prefrontal cortex (PFC), was decreased following withdrawal (2, 5 and 10 days) from repeated MDPV treatment, but not immediately after the last MDPV injection. CTX (200 mg/kg) pretreatment did not affect acute locomotor activation produced by MDPV (0.5, 1, 3 mg/kg). However, CTX (200 mg/kg) administered during a 7-day MDPV treatment paradigm attenuated the development of MDPV-induced sensitization of repetitive movements in rats challenged with MDPV following 11 days of drug abstinence. Pretreatment with CTX (200 mg/kg) during a 4-day MDPV (2 mg/kg) conditioned place preference (CPP) paradigm reduced the development of place preference produced by MDPV. The present data demonstrate dysregulation of corticolimbic glutamate transport systems during withdrawal from chronic MDPV exposure, and show that a GLT-1 transporter activator disrupts behavioral effects of MDPV that are related to synthetic cathinone abuse.

Stereochemistry of mephedrone neuropharmacology: enantiomer-specific behavioural and neurochemical effects in rats.

BACKGROUND AND PURPOSE: Synthetic cathinones, commonly referred to as 'bath salts', are a group of amphetamine-like drugs gaining popularity worldwide. 4-Methylmethcathinone (mephedrone, MEPH) is the most commonly abused synthetic cathinone in the UK, and exerts its effects by acting as a substrate-type releaser at monoamine transporters. Similar to other cathinone-related compounds, MEPH has a chiral centre and exists stably as two enantiomers: R-mephedrone (R-MEPH) and S-mephedrone (S-MEPH). EXPERIMENTAL APPROACH: Here, we provide the first investigation into the neurochemical and behavioural effects of R-MEPH and S-MEPH. We analysed both enantiomers in rat brain synaptosome neurotransmitter release assays and also investigated their effects on locomotor activity (e.g. ambulatory activity and repetitive movements), behavioural sensitization and reward. KEY RESULTS: Both enantiomers displayed similar potency as substrates (i.e. releasers) at dopamine transporters, but R-MEPH was much less potent than S-MEPH as a substrate at 5-HT transporters. Locomotor activity was evaluated in acute and repeated administration paradigms, with R-MEPH producing greater repetitive movements than S-MEPH across multiple doses. After repeated drug exposure, only R-MEPH produced sensitization of repetitive movements. R-MEPH produced a conditioned place preference whereas S-MEPH did not. Lastly, R-MEPH and S-MEPH produced biphasic profiles in an assay of intracranial self-stimulation (ICSS), but R-MEPH produced greater ICSS facilitation than S-MEPH. CONCLUSIONS AND IMPLICATIONS: Our data are the first to demonstrate stereospecific effects of MEPH enantiomers and suggest that the predominant dopaminergic actions of R-MEPH (i.e. the lack of serotonergic actions) render this stereoisomer more stimulant-like when compared with S-MEPH. This hypothesis warrants further study.

Stereochemistry and neuropharmacology of a 'bath salt' cathinone: S-enantiomer of mephedrone reduces cocaine-induced reward and withdrawal in invertebrates.

Knowledge about the neuropharmacology of mephedrone (MEPH) applies primarily to the racemate, or street form of the drug, but not to its individual enantiomers. Here, through chemical isolation of MEPH enantiomers and subsequent behavioral characterization in established invertebrate (planarian) assays, we began separating adverse effects of MEPH from potential therapeutic actions. We first compared stereotypical and environmental place conditioning (EPC) effects of racemic MEPH, S-MEPH, and R-MEPH. Stereotypy was enhanced by acute treatment (100-1000 µM) with each compound; however, S-MEPH was less potent and efficacious than racemate and R-MEPH. Both R-MEPH (10, 100, 250 µM) and racemate (100 µM) produced EPC, but S-MEPH was ineffective at all concentrations (10-100 µM). After showing that S-MEPH lacked rewarding efficacy, we investigated its ability to alter three of cocaine's behavioral effects (EPC, withdrawal, and stereotypy). Cocaine (1 µM) produced EPC that was abolished when S-MEPH (100 µM) was administered after cocaine conditioning. Spontaneous withdrawal from chronic cocaine exposure caused a reduction in motility that was not evident during acute or continuous cocaine treatment but was attenuated by S-MEPH (100 µM) treatment during the cocaine abstinence interval. Acute stereotypy produced by 1 mM cocaine, nicotine or racemic MEPH was not affected by S-MEPH (10-250 µM). The present results obtained using planarian assays suggest that the R-enantiomer of MEPH is predominantly responsible for its stimulant and rewarding effects and the S-enantiomer is capable of antagonizing cocaine's addictive-like behaviors without producing rewarding effects of its own.

Behavioral pharmacology of designer cathinones: a review of the preclinical literature.

"Bath salts" is one street name for a family of synthetic cathinones that display pharmacological effects resembling cocaine and commonly abused amphetamines. Despite extensive legislation aimed at the criminalization of bath salts, several designer cathinones are gaining a foothold in the illicit drug scene; for example, in the United Kingdom, mephedrone (4-methylmethcathinone, MEPH) is highly popular among drug abusers whereas, in the United States, MDPV (methylenedioxypyrovalerone) and methylone are highly prevalent. To date, knowledge about the hazards of designer cathinones is based mostly on hospital reports and anecdotal evidence derived from online surveys. Despite the paucity of preclinical studies directed toward designer cathinones, a number of invaluable findings arising from those studies are enabling scientists to develop their neuropharmacological profiles. Despite their commonalities in chemical structures, synthetic cathinones possess distinct neuropharmacological profiles and produce different behavioral effects, including unique effects on locomotor activity, learning, anxiety, thermoregulation, and abuse liability. The present review will discuss the behavioral effects of MEPH, MDPV, and methylone and compare those effects to established psychostimulant drugs. The rise in the use of designer cathinones in the United States and abroad justifies further investigations into these compounds, both for a greater understanding of the danger that "bath salts" pose to the public, and to provide insight into replacement cathinones as they emerge onto the market.

Mephedrone interactions with cocaine: prior exposure to the 'bath salt' constituent enhances cocaine-induced locomotor activation in rats.

Concurrent use of mephedrone (4-methylmethcathinone; MEPH) and established drugs of abuse is now commonplace, but knowledge about interactions between these drugs is sparse. The present study was designed to test the hypothesis that prior MEPH exposure enhances the locomotor-stimulant effects of cocaine and methamphetamine (METH). For cocaine experiments, rats pretreated with saline, cocaine (15 mg/kg), or MEPH (15 mg/kg) for 5 days were injected with cocaine after 10 days of drug absence. For METH experiments, rats pretreated with saline, METH (2 mg/kg), or MEPH (15 mg/kg) were injected with METH after 10 days of drug absence. Cocaine challenge produced greater locomotor activity after pretreatment with cocaine or MEPH than after pretreatment with saline. METH challenge produced greater locomotor activity after METH pretreatment than after saline pretreatment; however, locomotor activity in rats pretreated with MEPH or saline and then challenged with METH was not significantly different. The locomotor response to MEPH (15 mg/kg) was not significantly affected by pretreatment with cocaine (15 mg/kg) or METH (0.5, 2 mg/kg). The present demonstration that cocaine-induced locomotor activation is enhanced by prior MEPH exposure suggests that MEPH cross-sensitizes to cocaine and increases cocaine efficacy. Interestingly, MEPH cross-sensitization was not bidirectional and did not extend to METH, suggesting that the phenomenon is sensitive to specific psychostimulants.

Mephedrone (4-methylmethcathinone), a principal constituent of psychoactive bath salts, produces behavioral sensitization in rats.

BACKGROUND: The present study tested the hypothesis that mephedrone (MEPH) produces behavioral sensitization (i.e., a progressive increase in motor response during repeated psychostimulant exposure) in rats. METHODS: MEPH was administered in two paradigms: (1) a 7-day variable-dosing paradigm (15 mg/kg on the first day, 30 mg/kg for 5 days, 15 mg/kg on the last day) and (2) a 5-day constant-dosing paradigm (15 mg/kg for 5 days). Following 10 days of drug absence, rats were challenged with MEPH (15 mg/kg). RESULTS: MEPH challenge produced enhancement of repetitive movement compared to acute MEPH exposure in both paradigms. Sensitization of repetitive movements to MEPH was also detected following a shorter (2-day) absence interval, before initiation of an absence interval (i.e., following repeated daily exposure), and across context-independent and -dependent dosing schedules. A lower dose of MEPH (5mg/kg) did not produce sensitization of repetitive movement. Sensitization of ambulatory activity was not detected in any experimental paradigm. CONCLUSION: These results suggest that repeated MEPH exposure produces preferential sensitization to repetitive movement produced by acute MEPH challenge. Our findings suggest that MEPH is a unique stimulant displaying weak sensitizing properties with overlapping, but distinctive, features relative to established psychostimulant drugs.