The addition of bortezomib to rituximab, high-dose cytarabine and dexamethasone in relapsed or refractory mantle cell lymphoma-a randomized, open-label phase III trial of the European mantle cell lymphoma network.

The therapy of relapsed or refractory (r/r) mantle cell lymphoma (MCL) patients remains a major clinical challenge to date. We conducted a randomized, open-label, parallel-group phase-III trial hypothesizing superior efficacy of rituximab, high-dose cytarabine and dexamethasone with bortezomib (R-HAD + B) versus without (R-HAD) in r/r MCL ineligible for or relapsed after autologous stem cell transplant (ASCT). Primary endpoint was time to treatment failure (TTF), secondary endpoints included response rates, progression free survival, overall survival, and safety. In total, 128 of 175 planned patients were randomized to R-HAD + B (n = 64) or R-HAD (n = 64). Median TTF was 12 vs. 2.6 months (p = 0.045, MIPI-adjusted HR 0.69; 95%CI 0.47-1.02). Overall and complete response rates were 63 vs. 45% (p = 0.049) and 42 vs. 19% (p = 0.0062). A significant treatment effect was seen in the subgroup of patients >65 years (aHR 0.48, 0.29-0.79) and without previous ASCT (aHR 0.52, 0.28-0.96). Toxicity was mostly hematological and attributable to the chemotherapeutic backbone. Grade ≥3 leukocytopenia and lymphocytopenia were more common in R-HAD + B without differences in severe infections between both arms. Bortezomib in combination with chemotherapy can be effective in r/r MCL and should be evaluated further as a therapeutic option, especially if therapy with BTK inhibitors is not an option. Trial registration: NCT01449344.

A Combination of the Immunotherapeutic Drug Anti-Programmed Death 1 with Lenalidomide Enhances Specific T Cell Immune Responses against Acute Myeloid Leukemia Cells.

Immune checkpoint inhibitors can block inhibitory molecules on the surface of T cells, switching them from an exhausted to an active state. One of these inhibitory immune checkpoints, programmed cell death protein 1 (PD-1) is expressed on T cell subpopulations in acute myeloid leukemia (AML). PD-1 expression has been shown to increase with AML progression following allo-haematopoeitic stem cell transplantation, and therapy with hypomethylating agents. We have previously shown that anti-PD-1 can enhance the response of leukemia-associated antigen (LAA)-specific T cells against AML cells as well as leukemic stem and leukemic progenitor cells (LSC/LPCs) ex vivo. In concurrence, blocking of PD-1 with antibodies such as nivolumab has been shown to enhance response rates post-chemotherapy and stem cell transplant. The immune modulating drug lenalidomide has been shown to promote anti-tumour immunity including anti-inflammatory, anti-proliferative, pro-apoptotic and anti-angiogenicity. The effects of lenalidomide are distinct from chemotherapy, hypomethylating agents or kinase inhibitors, making lenalidomide an attractive agent for use in AML and in combination with existing active agents. To determine whether anti-PD-1 (nivolumab) and lenalidomide alone or in combination could enhance LAA-specific T cell immune responses, we used colony-forming immune and ELISpot assays. Combinations of immunotherapeutic approaches are believed to increase antigen-specific immune responses against leukemic cells including LPC/LSCs. In this study we used a combination of LAA-peptides with the immune checkpoint inhibitor anti-PD-1 and lenalidomide to enhance the killing of LSC/LPCs ex vivo. Our data offer a novel insight into how we could improve AML patient responses to treatment in future clinical studies.

Enhanced stimulation of antigen-specific immune responses against nucleophosmin 1 mutated acute myeloid leukaemia by an anti-programmed death 1 antibody.

Nucleophosmin1 (NPM1) is one of the most commonly mutated genes in AML and is often associated with a favourable prognosis. Immune responses play an increasing role in AML treatment decisions; however, the role of immune checkpoint inhibition is still not clear. To address this, we investigated specific immune responses against NPM1, and three other leukaemia-associated antigens (LAA), PRAME, Wilms' tumour 1 and RHAMM in AML patients. We investigated T cell responses against leukaemic progenitor/stem cells (LPC/LSC) using colony-forming immunoassays and flow cytometry. We examined whether immune checkpoint inhibition with the anti-programmed death 1 antibody increases the immune response against stem cell-like cells, comparing cells from NPM1 mutated and NPM1 wild-type AML patients. We found that the anti-PD-1 antibody, nivolumab, increases LAA stimulated cytotoxic T lymphocytes and the cytotoxic effect against LPC/LSC. The effect was strongest against NPM1mut cells when the immunogenic epitope was derived from the mutated region of NPM1 and these effects were enhanced through the addition of anti-PD-1. The data suggest that patients with NPM1 mutated AML could be treated with the immune checkpoint inhibitor anti-PD-1 and that this treatment combined with NPM1-mutation specific directed immunotherapy could be even more effective for this unique group of patients.

Severe immune thrombocytopenia following diphtheria, tetanus, pertussis and polio vaccination in a 36-year-old Caucasian woman: a case report.

BACKGROUND: Immune thrombocytopenia (ITP) is a rare autoimmune disorder characterized by low platelet counts and increased bleeding risk. The disease may be induced by other disorders, including malignancies, autoimmune diseases, infectious agents or drugs. However, ITP has also been described following vaccinations, such as the measles-mumps-rubella vaccination. In rare cases, ITP may occur in children who received a DTaP-IP (diphtheria, tetanus, acellular pertussis vaccine and inactivated poliovirus) vaccine. Hereinafter, we report the first well-documented cases of ITP in an adult patient in the temporal context of a DTaP-IP vaccination. CASE PRESENTATION: This case report attempts to capture the life-threatening picture of a 36-year-old otherwise healthy Caucasian woman with newly diagnosed severe immune thrombocytopenia in the temporal context of a DTaP-IP vaccination. Four days after receiving the vaccine, the women presented to her primary care physician with malaise, fever and recurrent epistaxis. Clinical examination revealed oral petechiae, ecchymoses, and non-palpable petechiae on both legs. The patient was immediately referred to a local hematology unit where she developed hematuria and an intestinal bleeding (WHO Bleeding Grade III) requiring multiple transfusions. After receiving oral corticosteroids and intravenous immunoglobulins, her platelets gradually recovered. Common causes of secondary ITP were ruled out by laboratory investigations, bone marrow and peripheral blood examinations. This raises the possibility of a (secondary) vaccination-associated thrombocytopenia. To the best of our knowledge, this is the first well-documented case of a DTaP-IP vaccination-related ITP in an adult patient in the English literature. CONCLUSION: Although a causal connection between both entities may not be established, we would like to raise awareness in clinicians that ITP following DTaP-IP vaccinations is potentially not limited to children, but may also occur in adults. Users of DTaP-IP booster vaccines should be alert of the possibility of such adverse reactions.

Increasing Role of Targeted Immunotherapies in the Treatment of AML.

Acute myeloid leukemia (AML) is the most common acute leukemia in adults. The standard of care in medically and physically fit patients is intensive induction therapy. The majority of these intensively treated patients achieve a complete remission. However, a high number of these patients will experience relapse. In patients older than 60 years, the results are even worse. Therefore, new therapeutic approaches are desperately needed. One promising approach in high-risk leukemia to prevent relapse is the induction of the immune system simultaneously or after reduction of the initial tumor burden. Different immunotherapeutic approaches such as allogenic stem cell transplantation or donor lymphocyte infusions are already standard therapies, but other options for AML treatment are in the pipeline. Moreover, the therapeutic landscape in AML is rapidly changing, and in the last years, a number of immunogenic targets structures eligible for specific therapy, risk assessment or evaluation of disease course were determined. For example, leukemia-associated antigens (LAA) showed to be critical as biomarkers of disease state and survival, as well as markers of minimal residual disease (MRD). Yet many mechanisms and properties are still insufficiently understood, which also represents a great potential for this form of therapy. Therefore, targeted therapy as immunotherapy could turn into an efficient tool to clear residual disease, improve the outcome of AML patients and reduce the relapse risk. In this review, established but also emerging immunotherapeutic approaches for AML patients will be discussed.

Survivin' Acute Myeloid Leukaemia-A Personalised Target for inv(16) Patients.

Despite recent advances in therapies including immunotherapy, patients with acute myeloid leukaemia (AML) still experience relatively poor survival rates. The Inhibition of Apoptosis (IAP) family member, survivin, also known by its gene and protein name, Baculoviral IAP Repeat Containing 5 (BIRC5), remains one of the most frequently expressed antigens across AML subtypes. To better understand its potential to act as a target for immunotherapy and a biomarker for AML survival, we examined the protein and pathways that BIRC5 interacts with using the Kyoto Encyclopedia of Genes and Genomes (KEGG), search tool for recurring instances of neighbouring genes (STRING), WEB-based Gene Set Analysis Toolkit, Bloodspot and performed a comprehensive literature review. We then analysed data from gene expression studies. These included 312 AML samples in the Microarray Innovations In Leukemia (MILE) dataset. We found a trend between above median levels of BIRC5 being associated with improved overall survival (OS) but this did not reach statistical significance (p = 0.077, Log-Rank). There was some evidence of a beneficial effect in adjusted analyses where above median levels of BIRC5 were shown to be associated with improved OS (p = 0.001) including in Core Binding Factor (CBF) patients (p = 0.03). Above median levels of BIRC5 transcript were associated with improved relapse free survival (p < 0.0001). Utilisation of a second large cDNA microarray dataset including 306 AML cases, again showed no correlation between BIRC5 levels and OS, but high expression levels of BIRC5 correlated with worse survival in inv(16) patients (p = 0.077) which was highly significant when datasets A and B were combined (p = 0.001). In addition, decreased BIRC5 expression was associated with better clinical outcome (p = 0.004) in AML patients exhibiting CBF mainly due to patients with inv(16) (p = 0.007). This study has shown that BIRC5 expression plays a role in the survival of AML patients, this association is not apparent when we examine CBF patients as a cohort, but when those with inv(16) independently indicating that those patients with inv(16) would provide interesting candidates for immunotherapies that target BIRC5.

Fatal late-onset CAR T-cell-mediated encephalitis after axicabtagene-ciloleucel in a patient with large B-cell lymphoma.

Treatment with CD19-directed (CAR) T cells has evolved as a standard of care for multiply relapsed or refractory large B-cell lymphoma (r/r LBCL). A common side effect of this treatment is the immune effector cell-associated neurotoxicity syndrome (ICANS). Severe ICANS can occur in up to 30% to 40% of patients treated with axicabtagene-ciloleucel (axi-cel), usually within the first 4 weeks after administration of the dose and usually responding well to steroids. We describe a case of progressive central neurotoxicity occurring 9 months after axi-cel infusion in a patient with r/r LBCL who had undergone a prior allogeneic hematopoietic cell transplant. Despite extensive systemic and intrathecal immunosuppression, neurological deterioration was inexorable and eventually fatal within 5 months. High CAR T-cell DNA copy numbers and elevated levels of interleukin-1 (IL-1) and IL-6 were found in the cerebral spinal fluid as clinical symptoms emerged, and CAR T-cell brain infiltration was observed on autopsy, suggesting that CAR T cells played a major pathogenetic role. This case of unexpected, devastating, late neurotoxicity warrants intensified investigation of neurological off-target effects of CD19-directed CAR T cells and highlights the need for continuous monitoring for late toxicities in this vulnerable patient population.

Characteristics and mechanisms to control a COVID-19 outbreak on a leukemia and stem cell transplantation unit.

Immunosuppressed patients like patients with leukemia or lymphoma, but also patients after autologous or allogeneic stem cell transplantation are at particular risk for an infection with COVID-19. We describe a COVID-19 outbreak on our leukemia and stem cell transplantation unit (LSCT-Unit) originating from a patient with newly diagnosed acute myeloid leukemia. The patient was treated with intensive induction chemotherapy and we characterize the subsequent outbreak of COVID-19 on a LSCT-Unit. We describe the characteristics of the 36 contacts among the medical team, the results of their PCR and antibody tests and clinical aspects and features of infected employees. Of these 36 close contacts, 9 employees of the LSCT-Unit were infected and were tested positive by PCR and/or antibody-testing. 8/9 of them were symptomatic, 3/9 with severe, 5/9 with mild symptoms, and one person without symptoms. Due to stringent hygiene measures, the outbreak did not lead to infections of other patients despite ongoing clinical work. Moreover, we demonstrate that incubation period and clinical course of a COVID-19 infection in an immunosuppressed patient could be unusual compared to that of immunocompetent patients. Consistent PCR and antibody testing are helpful to understand, control, and prevent outbreaks. For the safety of health-care workers and patients alike, all employees wore FFP2 masks and were trained to adhere to several further safety guidelines. The implementation of rigorous hygiene measures is the key to controlling an outbreak and preventing infections of other patients.

Immune Checkpoint Expression on Immune Cells of HNSCC Patients and Modulation by Chemo- and Immunotherapy.

Endogenous control mechanisms, including immune checkpoints and immunosuppressive cells, are exploited in the process of tumorigenesis to weaken the anti-tumor immune response. Cancer treatment by chemotherapy or immune checkpoint inhibition can lead to changes of checkpoint expression, which influences therapy success. Peripheral blood lymphocytes (PBL) and tumor-infiltrating lymphocytes (TIL) were isolated from head and neck squamous cell carcinoma (HNSCC) patients (n = 23) and compared to healthy donors (n = 23). Immune checkpoint expression (programmed cell death ligand 1 (PD-1), tumor necrosis factor receptor (TNFR)-related (GITR), CD137, tumor necrosis factor receptor superfamily member 4 (TNFRSF4) (OX40), t-cell immunoglobulin and mucin-domain containing-3 (TIM3), B- and T-lymphocyte attenuator (BTLA), lymphocyte-activation gene 3 (LAG3)) was determined on immune cells by flow cytometry. PD-L1 expression was detected on tumor tissue by immunohistochemistry. Immune cells were treated with immuno- and chemotherapeutics to investigate treatment-specific change in immune checkpoint expression, in vitro. Specific changes of immune checkpoint expression were identified on PBL and TIL of HNSCC patients compared to healthy donors. Various chemotherapeutics acted differently on the expression of immune checkpoints. Changes of checkpoint expression were significantly less pronounced on regulatory T cells compared to other lymphocyte populations. Nivolumab treatment significantly reduced the receptor PD-1 on all analyzed T cell populations, in vitro. The specific immune checkpoint expression patterns in HNSCC patients and the investigated effects of immunomodulatory agents may improve the development and efficacy of targeted immunotherapy.

A Randomized Phase IIa Trial with Temsirolimus versus Sunitinib in Advanced Non-Clear Cell Renal Cell Carcinoma: An Intergroup Study of the CESAR Central European Society for Anticancer Drug Research-EWIV and the Interdisciplinary Working Group on Renal Cell Cancer (IAGN) of the German Cancer Society.

BACKGROUND: Non-clear cell renal cell cancers (nccRCC) are rare entities, and the optimal therapy in metastatic disease has still to be defined. METHODS: In this small prospectively randomized phase IIa multicenter trial, we investigated temsirolimus (TEM) versus sunitinib (SUN) as first-line therapy in patients with metastatic nccRCC. The patients were randomized 1:1 to either TEM in a dose of 25 mg i.v. once a week or SUN with 50 mg p.o. daily for 4 weeks on and 2 weeks off. Primary endpoint was progression-free survival (PFS). In total, 22 patients were included with predominantly papillary RCC (16/22) followed by chromophobe RCC and others. RESULTS: The male to female ratio was 16:6. The tumor control rate (CR + PR + SD) was 58% for TEM and 90% for SUN-treated patients. There was also a trend for improved PFS with 9.3 versus 13.2 months (HR 1.64; 95% CI 0.65-4.18) in favor of SUN. There was no trend for overall survival. CONCLUSIONS: Despite this trial had to be terminated earlier due to low recruitment, the results match the other studies published so far with the mTOR inhibitor everolimus and SUN, which show a trend in favor of SUN for ORR and PFS.

Specific T-cell immune responses against colony-forming cells including leukemic progenitor cells of AML patients were increased by immune checkpoint inhibition.

The efficacy of immunotherapies in cancer treatment becomes more and more apparent not only in different solid tumors but also in hematological malignancies. However, in acute myeloid leukemia (AML), mechanisms to increase the efficacy of immunotherapeutic approaches have to be further elucidated. Targeting leukemic progenitor and stem cells (LPC/LSC) by specific CTL, for instance, in an adjuvant setting or in minimal residual disease, might be an option to prevent relapse of AML or to treat MRD. Therefore, we investigated the influence of immune checkpoint inhibitors on LAA-specific immune responses by CTL against leukemic myeloid blasts and colony-forming cells including leukemic progenitor cells (CFC/LPC). In functional immunoassays like CFU/CFI (colony-forming units/immunoassays) and ELISpot analysis, we detected specific LAA-directed immune responses against CFC/LPC that are postulated to be the source population of relapse of the disease. The addition of nivolumab (anti-PD-1) significantly increases LAA-directed immune responses against CFC/LPC, no effect is seen when ipilimumab (anti-CTLA-4) is added. The combination of ipilimumab and nivolumab does not improve the effect compared to nivolumab alone. The anti-PD1-directed immune response correlates to PD-L1 expression on progenitor cells. Our data suggest that immunotherapeutic approaches have the potential to target malignant CFC/LPC and anti-PD-1 antibodies could be an immunotherapeutic approach in AML. Moreover, combination with LAA-directed vaccination strategies might also open interesting application possibilities.

Immunological and Clinical Impact of Manipulated and Unmanipulated DLI after Allogeneic Stem Cell Transplantation of AML Patients.

Allogeneic stem cell transplantation (allo-SCT) is the preferred curative treatment for several hematological malignancies. The efficacy of allo-SCT depends on the graft-versus-leukemia (GvL) effect. However, the prognosis of patients with relapsed acute myeloid leukemia (AML) following allo-SCT is poor. Donor lymphocyte infusion (DLI) is utilized after allo-SCT in this setting to prevent relapse, to prolong progression free survival, to establish full donor chimerism and to restore the GvL effect in patients with hematological malignancies. Thus, there are different options for the administration of DLI in AML patients. DLI is currently used prophylactically and in the setting of an overt relapse. In addition, in the minimal residual disease (MRD) setting, DLI may be a possibility to improve overall survival. However, DLI might increase the risk of severe life-threatening complications such as graft-versus-host disease (GvHD) as well as severe infections. The transfusion of lymphocytes has been tested not only for the treatment of hematological malignancies but also chronic infections. In this context, manipulated DLI in a prophylactic or therapeutic approach are an option, e.g., virus-specific DLI using different selection methods or antigen-specific DLI such as peptide-specific CD8+ cytotoxic T lymphocytes (CTLs). In addition, T cells are also genetically engineered, using both chimeric antigen receptor (CAR) genetically modified T cells and T cell receptor (TCR) genetically modified T cells. T cell therapies in general have the potential to enhance antitumor immunity, augment vaccine efficacy, and limit graft-versus-host disease after allo-SCT. The focus of this review is to discuss the different strategies to use donor lymphocytes after allo-SCT. Our objective is to give an insight into the functional effects of DLI on immunogenic antigen recognition for a better understanding of the mechanisms of DLI. To ultimately increase the GvL potency without raising the risk of GvHD at the same time.

The Important Role of Immunotherapies in Acute Myeloid Leukemia.

This series on immunotherapies in acute myeloid leukemia (AML) aims to give readers new insights on established but also emerging immunotherapeutic approaches for AML patients [...].

Donor lymphocyte infusion leads to diversity of specific T cell responses and reduces regulatory T cell frequency in clinical responders.

T cell responses against malignant cells play a major role in maintaining remission and prolonging overall survival in patients after allogeneic stem cell transplantation and donor lymphocyte infusion (DLI) due to graft-versus-leukemia effect. For better characterization of the T cell responses, we assessed frequency and diversity of leukemia-associated antigen (LAA)-specific cytotoxic T cells using ELISpot and pMHC multimer assays and analyzed the frequency of regulatory T cells (Treg) as well as cytokine profiles before/after DLI. The data were correlated to the clinical course of patients. Significantly more LAA-derived T cell epitopes (p = 0.02) were recognized in clinical responders (R) when compared to nonresponders (NR). In addition, pMHC multimer-based flow cytometry showed a significantly higher frequency of LAA-specific T cells in R versus NR. The frequency of Treg in R decreased significantly (p = 0.008) while keeping stable in NR. No differences in T cell subset analysis before/after DLI were revealed. Clinical responders were correlated to specific immune responses and all clinical responders showed an increase of specific immune responses after DLI. Cytokine assays using enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay showed a significant increase of IL-4 after DLI. Taken together, an increase of specific CTL responses against several LAA after DLI was detected. Moreover, this study suggests that enhanced LAA diversity in T cell responses as well as decreasing numbers of Treg contribute to clinical outcome of patients treated with DLI.

Peptide vaccination in the presence of adjuvants in patients after hematopoietic stem cell transplantation with CD4+ T cell reconstitution elicits consistent CD8+ T cell responses.

Rationale: Patients receiving an allogeneic stem cell graft from cytomegalovirus (CMV) seronegative donors are particularly prone to CMV reactivation with a high risk of disease and mortality. Therefore we developed and manufactured a novel vaccine and initiated a clinical phase I trial with a CMV phosphoprotein 65 (CMVpp65)-derived peptide. Methods: Ten patients after allogeneic stem cell transplantation received four vaccinations at a biweekly interval. All patients were monitored for CMVpp65 antigenemia. Flow cytometry for CMV-specific CD8+ and γδ T cells as well as neutralizing anti-CMV antibodies were correlated to clinical parameters. Results: The vaccination was well tolerated. Seven of nine patients cleared CMVpp65 antigenemia after four vaccinations and are still free from antigenemia to this day. Two patients with CMV reactivation showed persisting CMV antigenemia. One patient received prophylactic vaccination and did not develop antigenemia. An increase of up to six-fold in frequency of both CMV-specific CD8+ T cells and/or Vδ2negative γδ T cells was detected. Titers of neutralizing antibodies increased up to the tenfold. Humoral and cellular immune responses correlated with clearance of CMV. Conclusion: In summary, CMVpp65 peptide vaccination for patients after allogeneic stem cell transplantation at high risk for CMV reactivation was safe, well tolerated and clinically encouraging. A study in solid-organ transplant patients is ongoing.

An accreting pulsar with extreme properties drives an ultraluminous x-ray source in NGC 5907.

Ultraluminous x-ray sources (ULXs) in nearby galaxies shine brighter than any x-ray source in our Galaxy. ULXs are usually modeled as stellar-mass black holes (BHs) accreting at very high rates or intermediate-mass BHs. We present observations showing that NGC 5907 ULX is instead an x-ray accreting neutron star (NS) with a spin period evolving from 1.43 seconds in 2003 to 1.13 seconds in 2014. It has an isotropic peak luminosity of [Formula: see text]1000 times the Eddington limit for a NS at 17.1 megaparsec. Standard accretion models fail to explain its luminosity, even assuming beamed emission, but a strong multipolar magnetic field can describe its properties. These findings suggest that other extreme ULXs (x-ray luminosity [Formula: see text] 1041 erg second[Formula: see text]) might harbor NSs.

Positron annihilation signatures associated with the outburst of the microquasar V404 Cygni.

Microquasars are stellar-mass black holes accreting matter from a companion star and ejecting plasma jets at almost the speed of light. They are analogues of quasars that contain supermassive black holes of 10(6) to 10(10) solar masses. Accretion in microquasars varies on much shorter timescales than in quasars and occasionally produces exceptionally bright X-ray flares. How the flares are produced is unclear, as is the mechanism for launching the relativistic jets and their composition. An emission line near 511 kiloelectronvolts has long been sought in the emission spectrum of microquasars as evidence for the expected electron-positron plasma. Transient high-energy spectral features have been reported in two objects, but their positron interpretation remains contentious. Here we report observations of γ-ray emission from the microquasar V404 Cygni during a recent period of strong flaring activity. The emission spectrum around 511 kiloelectronvolts shows clear signatures of variable positron annihilation, which implies a high rate of positron production. This supports the earlier conjecture that microquasars may be the main sources of the electron-positron plasma responsible for the bright diffuse emission of annihilation γ-rays in the bulge region of our Galaxy. Additionally, microquasars could be the origin of the observed megaelectronvolt continuum excess in the inner Galaxy.

Immune responses to WT1 in patients with AML or MDS after chemotherapy and allogeneic stem cell transplantation.

Wilms' tumor gene 1 (WT1) is overexpressed in leukemia and WT1-derived CD8(+) T-cell epitopes for immunotherapies targeting WT1 have been defined. Here, we analyzed expression of WT1 in 226 peripheral blood and bone marrow samples from patients with acute myeloid leukemia or myelodysplastic syndrome (AML/MDS) before and after allogeneic stem cell transplantation (SCT). Transcripts were assessed by quantitative polymerase chain reaction, and WT1-specific CD8+ cytotoxic T cells (CTL) were monitored by tetramer staining and enzyme-linked immunospot (ELISPOT) assays. Reduction of WT1 levels correlated with a longer survival (p < 0.01). Increment of WT1 transcripts eventually resulted in relapse and subsequent death of the patients. In patients with longer survival and continuous complete remission (cCR) after SCT, higher and enduring frequencies of WT1-specific CTL than in patients developing a relapse were detected. These cells were effector T cells secreting interferon gamma and granzyme B. In summary, WT1 is a suitable marker for the detection of minimal residual disease after SCT or chemotherapy. A rising WT1 signal correlated with a dismal prognosis of the patients. WT1-specific CD8(+) T cells might contribute to the maintenance of a cCR. Targeting WT-1 by peptide/protein vaccination as well as adoptive transfer of genetically modified T cells are future options in the individualized therapy for AML/MDS patients.