What can we learn from low-THC cannabis growers in Europe? A comparative transnational study of small-scale cannabis growers from Italy and Switzerland.

BACKGROUND: A market for cannabis with low levels (LT) of Tetrahydrocannabinol (THC) has recently emerged in Europe alongside an ongoing trend of domestic cannabis cultivation with high-THC content (HT). This phenomenon may have diversified the growers' profile. This study investigates LT growers' (LTG) characteristics (demographics, consumption patterns, growing experience) and growing motivations with a subsequent comparison with HT growers (HTG). METHODS: Data from 11,479 small-scale growers was collected through an online survey (ICCQ 2) conducted by the Global Cannabis Cultivation Research Consortium (GCCRC) from 2020 to 2021. This exploratory study analyses a subsample of the 1618 respondents residing in Italy and Switzerland. A quantitative approach was used, performing comparative bivariate and multivariate analyses between participants who have only grown HT plants in the previous year (HTG; n = 1303) and those who have either grown LT only or alongside HT (LTG; n = 315). RESULTS: LTGs differ significantly from HTGs. LTGs are older than HTGs. Growing medical cannabis for oneself and others is more likely among them than HTGs. Compared to HTGs, LTGs have lesser odds to grow for recreational use and to have problematic cannabis use. Growing for legality, pleasure and accessing milder cannabis is more likely for LTGs than HTGs. HTGs have greater experience than HTGs, growing for longer, more extensively and better meeting their consumption needs. There is a wider production of by-products, such as oils and extracts, among LTGs than HTGs. Having been in contact with the police for growing is also more likely among them than HTGs. CONCLUSION: LTGs reported significantly more growing experience when compared to HTGs and should be considered a distinct group of growers. The results suggest that the emergence of the legal LT market has more likely drawn previous HTGs into growing LT, mainly medically, rather than attracting new individuals toward cannabis cultivation.

Global patterns in small-scale cannabis growers' distribution practices: Exploring the grower-distributor nexus.

BACKGROUND: While the supply of cannabis is commonly assumed to be dominated by criminal gangs, a sizable share of the domestic cannabis supply is provided by small-scale growers. This article examines the nature and scope of small-scale growers' distribution practices, with a particular focus on cross-country differences and variations between different types of grower-distributors, i.e., "non-suppliers", "exclusive social suppliers", "sharers and sellers" and "exclusive sellers". METHODS: Based on a large convenience web survey sample of predominantly small-scale cannabis growers from 18 countries, this article draws on data from two subsamples. The first subsample includes past-year growers in all 18 countries who answered questions regarding their market participation (n = 8,812). The second subsample includes past-year growers in 13 countries, who answered additional questions about their supply practices (n = 2,296). RESULTS: The majority of the cannabis growers engaged in distribution of surplus products, making them in effect "grower-distributors". Importantly, many did so as a secondary consequence of growing, and social supply (e.g., sharing and gifting) is much more common than selling. While growers who both shared and sold ("sharers and sellers"), and especially those who only sold ("exclusive sellers"), grew a higher number of plants and were most likely to grow due to a wish to sell for profits, the majority of these are best described as small-scale sellers. That is, the profit motive for growing was often secondary to non-financial motives and most sold to a limited number of persons in their close social network. CONCLUSION: We discuss the implications of the findings on the structural process of import-substitution in low-end cannabis markets, including a growing normalization of cannabis supply.

Brain and body disconnect: A retrospective case series of subacute combined degeneration of the spinal cord from chronic nitrous oxide use in Perth, Western Australia.

BACKGROUND: Chronic nitrous oxide (N2O) use causes inactivation of vitamin B12, resulting in neurological and psychiatric symptoms. This case series presents all N2O-related presentations to the emergency department at Royal Perth Hospital between June 2019 and June 2021, alongside the costs of these admissions. CASE PRESENTATION: Twenty-two patients were identified; 68% (n = 15) were male. The median age was 22.4 years (interquartile range [IQR], 20-30). Median daily number of N2O bulbs inhaled was 150 (IQR, 64-300) with a median duration of use of 9 months (IQR, 3-12). Presentations included ataxia, paraesthesia and falls (n = 18), urinary retention (n = 3) and psychotic symptoms (n = 2). Fourteen patients had severe symptoms prompting a magnetic resonance imaging of brain and spine, confirming 12 cases of subacute combined degeneration of the spinal cord. All patients had IMI vitamin B12 therapy, while 14 had oral methionine therapy. The median length of admission was 4 days (IQR 1-23 days). The median cost of admission per day for patients where costs were accessible (n = 7) was $2061 (IQR, $1903-$2860). DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSIONS: A case series of symptomatic chronic N2O use with severe neurological sequelae and significant costs associated per admission. Triangulation of emergency department and Ecstasy and Related Drugs Reporting System data helped prompt a swift public health response, including mandatory warning labels, limits to transaction amounts and legislative changes to the Medicines and Poisons Act to make it illegal for sale if there is a suspicion that it will be abused.

A multicentre case series of analytically confirmed gamma-hydroxybutyrate intoxications in Western Australian emergency departments: Pre-hospital circumstances, co-detections and clinical outcomes.

INTRODUCTION: Gamma-hydroxybutyrate (GHB) use is associated with high risk of accidental overdose. This study examined the pre-hospital circumstances, demographic characteristics and clinical outcomes of analytically confirmed GHB emergency department (ED) presentations in Western Australia (WA). METHODS: This case series was conducted across three WA EDs involved in the Emerging Drugs Network of Australia, from April 2020 to July 2022. Patient demographics, pre-hospital drug exposure circumstances and ED presentation and outcome characteristics were collected from ambulance and hospital medical records of GHB-confirmed cases. RESULTS: GHB was detected in 45 ED presentations. The median age was 34 years and 53.3% (n = 24) were female. Most patients arrived at the ED by ambulance (n = 37, 85.7%) and required immediate emergency care (Australasian Triage Score 1 or 2 = 97.8%). One-third of patients were admitted to intensive care (n = 14, 31.1%). Methylamphetamine was co-detected in 37 (82.2%) GHB-confirmed cases. Reduced conscious state was indicated by first recorded Glasgow Coma Scale of ≤8 (n = 29, 64.4%) and observations of patients becoming, or being found, 'unresponsive' and 'unconscious' in various pre-hospital settings (n = 28, 62.2%). 'Agitated' and/or 'erratic' mental state and behavioural observations were recorded in 20 (44.4%) cases. DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSIONS: Analytically verified data from ED presentations with acute toxicity provides an objective information source on drug use trends and emerging public health threats. In our study, patients presenting to WA EDs with GHB intoxication were acutely unwell, often requiring intensive care treatment. The unexpectedly high proportion of female GHB intoxications and methylamphetamine co-ingestion warrants further exploration.

Are cannabis use problems comparable across individuals using for recreational and medical purposes? An international cross-sectional study of individuals who use self-grown cannabis.

BACKGROUND: Little is known about cannabis use problems among individuals who use cannabis for medical purposes and whether rates and determinants of cannabis use problems in medical users differ to those observed among individuals using for recreational reasons. This study examines whether Severity of Dependence Scale (SDS) scores differ across individuals who use self-grown cannabis for the following reasons: "recreational only", "medical and recreational" and "medical only". Furthermore, the study tests whether cannabis use frequency, cannabis strain, and type of cannabis influences the strength of the association between purpose of use and cannabis use problems. METHODS: Data (n = 5,347) were collected from a subsample of the Global Cannabis Cultivation Research Consortium project, focusing on small-scale cannabis growers in 18 countries. Robust regressions analyzed differences in SDS scores across the three use motivation groups. RESULTS: Compared with respondents reporting only recreational motivations of cannabis use, those with medical (with and without recreational) motivations were associated with lower SDS scores (B: -0.190 and B: -0.459, p < 0.001 respectively). Daily use was associated with significantly higher SDS scores across all cannabis motivation groups, albeit the magnitude of the association was significantly smaller among individuals with medical motivations of use. CONCLUSION: The extent to which people experience cannabis use problems, and the determinants of these problems may differ depending on whether cannabis use is motivated by recreational or medical purposes. As such, the findings of the current study suggest that public education efforts, harm reduction approaches and policy responses should be tailored depending on whether cannabis is used for recreational or medical purposes.

Conflict and social control among cannabis growers.

AIMS: Illegal drug markets are often assumed to be violent and predatory due to the absence of third-party enforcement. While cannabis markets are generally considered to be relatively more peaceful, there has been little investigation of the levels of conflict and victimization among small-scale cannabis growers, particularly under different cannabis policy and enforcement settings. This paper explores prevalence and predictors of conflict and social control among small-scale cannabis growers. METHODS: The data were obtained from an online convenience survey of small-scale cannabis growers from 13 countries (Austria, Canada, Denmark, Finland, France, Germany, Israel, New Zealand, Portugal, Switzerland, United Kingdom, United States, and Uruguay) from August 2020 to September 2021 (N = 5667). Key measures collected included the types of victimization due to cannabis growing, the perpetrators of these predatory actions, reasons for the conflict, and the grower's response to being victimized. Multivariate logistic regression models were used to identify predictors of different types of victimization and social control responses among cannabis cultivators. RESULTS: Most growers (76 %) never directly experienced violence or other victimization related to their cannabis cultivation. However, about one-quarter of growers had been victimized at some point, mostly involving theft, with physical violence rare. Growing outdoors, growing with others, growing more plants, and being a more seasoned grower increased the risk of victimization. Growers who were motivated by profit were more susceptible to theft. Surprisingly, growers in legal recreational jurisdictions experienced greater levels of theft and violent victimization than growers in illegal jurisdictions. Nonviolent social control responses predominated among the growers, mostly characterized by toleration but also avoidance and negotiation. CONCLUSION: While most growers reported no victimization, a substantial minority did so, largely theft rather than violence, and typically did not report employing retaliatory violence. Social control responses were mostly nonviolent. These findings varied under different cannabis policy and enforcement environments. Cannabis legalization does not eliminate opportunities for theft and violence related to cannabis cultivation.

Comparing police use of drug detection dogs amongst injecting and non-injecting groups of people who regularly use drugs in Australia.

INTRODUCTION: Drug detection dogs are utilised across multiple settings, however existing literature focuses predominantly on festival-based encounters. We compare drug dog encounters in non-festival settings among two samples of people who regularly use drugs, and investigate factors associated with witness only versus stop and/or search encounters. METHODS: Australians who regularly (i.e., ≥monthly) use ecstasy and/or other illegal stimulants (n = 777; Ecstasy and Related Drugs Reporting System (EDRS)) or inject illegal drugs (n = 862; Illicit Drugs Reporting System (IDRS)) were surveyed between April-June, 2019. Univariable regression analyses were used to test for differences in drug dog encounters between samples, and to identify factors associated with a more intensive drug dog encounter (namely those that involved a stop and/or search). RESULTS: People who inject drugs were less likely to witness drug dogs than those who regularly use ecstasy and/or other illegal stimulants (odds ratio (OR) 0.46; 95 % CI 0.30-0.69). They were significantly more likely than EDRS participants to report being stopped and searched (3.29; 1.68-6.44) however. Among those carrying drugs at their last stop and/or search encounter, the majority of both samples reported that their drugs were not detected by police. IDRS participants aged 35-49 were more likely to report a stop and/or search encounter than those aged 17-34; no significant associations were found among the EDRS sample. CONCLUSIONS: Despite participants who use ecstasy and/other stimulants being more likely than those who regularly inject drugs to report encountering drug dogs in non-festival settings, participants who inject drugs were more likely to report an intensive or invasive drug dog encounter and/or receiving a formal criminal justice consequence. This study reinforces questions about the efficacy and appropriateness of drug dog operations.

Has there been an increase in nitrous oxide use and associated harms in Australia? An analysis of triangulated data sources, 2003-2020.

BACKGROUND: There is growing concern, globally, regarding use of nitrous oxide (N2O) for intoxication purposes. This paper aims to examine trends in: (i) past six month N2O use among a sample of people who use regularly use ecstasy and/or other illicit stimulants (2003-2020); (ii) volume of N2O-related Google searches and social media posts (2009-2020); and (iii) N2O-related calls to Poisons Information Centres (PIC) (2004-2020). METHODS: Data were obtained from annual interviews with sentinel samples of Australians aged ≥16 years who used ecstasy and/or other illicit stimulants ≥monthly and resided in a capital city (∼800 each year); Google search activity; social media posts; and exposure calls to four PIC. RESULTS: Among samples of people who regularly use ecstasy and/or other illicit stimulants, past six-month N2O use increased 10% each year from 2009 to 2020, with the sharpest increase observed between 2015 and 2018 (25.4% p/year; 95% CI: 14.6-37.1). Frequency and quantity of N2O use remained stable and low. Google search probabilities increased by 1.8% each month from January 2009 and December 2019 (95% CI: 1.5-2.2), with the sharpest increase observed between July 2016 to December 2017 (6.0% p/month; 95% CI: 4.4-7.5). Social media posts increased 2.0% per month from January 2009 and December 2019 (95% CI: 1.1-3.0), with the sharpest increase observed between March and October 2017 (19.2% p/month; 95% CI: 1.7-39.7). The number of N2O-related calls to Australian PIC increased sixfold between 2016 (16) and 2020 (111). CONCLUSIONS: Triangulation of various data sources indicate significant shifts in N2O use and harms in Australia. This includes increases in use, Google searches and social media posts, although these have plateaued in recent years, coupled with increased rates of harm. These findings correspond with evidence of a global increase in N2O use and harm, highlighting the need for education of both people who use N2O and health professionals.

Real or fake? Sourcing and marketing of non-prescribed benzodiazepines amongst two samples of people who regularly use illicit drugs in Australia.

INTRODUCTION: There is concern around non-prescribed benzodiazepine use, particularly with increasing detections of counterfeit products containing high-risk novel compounds. The aims of this study were to investigate how and which non-prescribed benzodiazepines are being sourced; forms, appearance and packaging; and awareness of risks associated with non-prescribed benzodiazepines. METHODS: Data were collected from a sample of Australians who inject drugs or use ecstasy and/or other illicit stimulants on a monthly or more frequent basis, and who reported past 6-month use of non-prescribed benzodiazepines (n = 235 and n = 250, respectively). Data were collected on source, diversion from a known/trusted prescription, product name and aesthetic characteristics for the last non-prescribed benzodiazepine obtained. RESULTS: Amongst participants who injected drugs, 71% reported that their last non-prescribed benzodiazepines were diverted from a known/trusted prescription, compared to 59% of participants who used ecstasy/other stimulants. Sourcing via cryptomarkets was rare. Across both samples, the majority reported last obtaining substances sold/marketed as diazepam or alprazolam. Participants sourcing via non-diverted means were twice as likely to obtain alprazolam. Known sourcing of novel compounds was rare. Amongst participants who used ecstasy/other stimulants, 36% reported confidence in the content/dose of non-prescribed benzodiazepines even when the source is unknown. DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSIONS: Most participants obtained substances sold as classic/registered benzodiazepines, mostly via diverted prescriptions, with a substantial minority potentially unaware of counterfeits circulating. While diverted use undeniably presents risks, tightening of prescriptions in Australia could inadvertently lead to greater supply of novel benzodiazepines as seen internationally, reinforcing prioritisation of demand and harm reduction strategies.

Disruption to Australian heroin, methamphetamine, cocaine and ecstasy markets with the COVID-19 pandemic and associated restrictions.

BACKGROUND: Changes to drug markets can affect drug use and related harms. We aimed to describe market trends of heroin, methamphetamine, cocaine and ecstasy in Australia following the introduction of COVID-19 pandemic-associated restrictions. METHODS: Australians residing in capital cities who regularly inject drugs (n ∼= 900 each year) or regularly use ecstasy and/or other illicit stimulants (n ∼= 800 each year) participated in annual interviews 2014-2022. We used self-reported market indicators (price, availability, and purity) for heroin, crystal methamphetamine, cocaine, and ecstasy crystal to estimate generalised additive models. Observations from the 2014-2019 surveys were used to establish the pre-pandemic trend; 2020, 2021 and 2022 observations were considered immediate, short-term and longer-term changes since the introduction of pandemic restrictions. RESULTS: Immediate impacts on market indicators were observed for heroin and methamphetamine in 2020 relative to the 2014-2019 trend; price per cap/point increased (ß: A$9.69, 95% confidence interval [CI]: 2.25-17.1 and ß: A$40.3, 95% CI: 33.1-47.5, respectively), while perceived availability (adjusted odds ratio [aOR] for 'easy'/'very easy' to obtain: 0.38, 95% CI: 0.24-0.59 and aOR: 0.08, 95% CI: 0.03-0.25, respectively) and perceived purity (aOR for 'high' purity: 0.36, 95% CI: 0.23-0.54 and aOR: 0.33, 95% CI: 0.20-0.54, respectively) decreased. There was no longer evidence for change in 2021 or 2022 relative to the 2014-2019 trend. Changes to ecstasy and cocaine markets were most evident in 2022 relative to the pre-pandemic trend: price per gram increased (ß: A$92.8, 95% CI: 61.6-124 and ß: A$24.3, 95% CI: 7.93-40.6, respectively) and perceived purity decreased (aOR for 'high purity': 0.18, 95% CI: 0.09-0.35 and 0.57, 95% CI: 0.36-0.90, respectively), while ecstasy was also perceived as less easy to obtain (aOR: 0.18, 95% CI: 0.09-0.35). CONCLUSION: There were distinct disruptions to illicit drug markets in Australia after the COVID-19 pandemic began; the timing and magnitude varied by drug.

Encounters with police drug detection dogs at music festivals amongst people who regularly use ecstasy and/or other illicit stimulants in Australia.

INTRODUCTION: Despite increasing evidence challenging the effectiveness and legality of police drug dog operations, these strategies remain common. We aimed to describe drug dog encounters at music festivals, behavioural adaptations taken in anticipation of their presence and consequences of encounters amongst a sample of people who regularly use MDMA/ecstasy. METHODS: Data were collected via interviewer-administered questionnaires in April-June 2019. Australians aged 16 years or older who used MDMA/ecstasy and/or other stimulants monthly in the last 6 months were recruited from capital cities via social media and word-of-mouth (n = 797). Participants reported recent drug dog encounters, encounter settings and actions taken in anticipation of and in response to encounters. RESULTS: In this sample, encounters with drug dogs at festivals were common (60%), with most participants (92%) reporting anticipating the encounter. Most (86%) of this group reported behavioural adaptations to avoid a detection, with concealing drugs well (57%) and consuming prior to entering the festival (20%) most reported. Only 4% of those who expected drug dog presence chose not to carry or consume drugs. One-quarter (26%) of those who reported an encounter were stopped by police and 4% were searched (bodily/bag search). DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSION: Most participants anticipated drug dog presence at festivals, however, were not deterred from carrying or consuming drugs. Some reported adaptations to avoid detection may increase drug-related health, social and legal harms. Our study suggests drug dog presence at festivals does not deter carriage/use of illegal drugs, and echoes concerns regarding the efficacy and appropriateness of this policing initiative.

Drug policing down under: An investigation of panic consumption, internal concealment and the use of drug amnesty bins among a sample of Australian festivalgoers.

BACKGROUND: The use of drug detection dogs and other punitive policing methods remain common at music festivals in Australia and elsewhere, despite concern about iatrogenic effects and recommendations for their overhaul. While drug amnesty bins are a commonly implemented strategy purported to mitigate risk associated with policing, the efficacy of this intervention is debated. This paper investigates two of the most concerning iatrogenic effects of drug policing practices at Australian festivals - internal concealment and panic consumption - and explores the potential efficacy of drug amnesty bins. METHODS: A stepped, mixed methods study (qual→QUANT→qual) comprised qualitative interviews with key informants and festivalgoers, and a quantitative online survey completed by almost 2000 Australian festivalgoers (52% male; median age 20 years old). Descriptive statistics were performed alongside bivariable and multivariable logistic regressions predicting internal concealment and panic consumption. Inductive thematic analysis was used to examine the qualitative data. RESULTS: Among respondents who had ever used illicit drugs at festivals (n=1065), 23% reported hiding drugs internally to evade police detection and 17% reported panic consumption. Female respondents and respondents expecting dogs were at greater odds of reporting internal concealment. The qualitative data provided greater insight into the risky nature of internal concealment practices and panic incited by police at the gates. When asked if they would have considered discarding their drugs into a drug amnesty bin had they been concerned about detection, less than a quarter (24%) said they definitely or probably would have. CONCLUSION: This paper adds to the evidence regarding iatrogenic effects of punitive drug policing practices at festivals. The findings have implications for shifting away from punitive policies to ones focused on public health. Additionally, the findings suggest drug amnesty bins should not be viewed as an adequate response for averting harms from drug policing.

Changes in illicit drug use and markets with the COVID-19 pandemic and associated restrictions: findings from the Ecstasy and Related Drugs Reporting System, 2016-20.

AIMS: To describe (i) self-reported changes in drug use and (ii) trends in price, perceived availability, and perceived purity of illicit drugs, among people who regularly use ecstasy/ 3,4-methylenedioxymethamphetamine (MDMA) and other illicit stimulants in Australia following COVID-19 and associated restrictions. DESIGN: Annual interviews with cross-sectional sentinel samples conducted face-to-face in 2016-19 and via video conferencing or telephone in 2020. Data were collected via an interviewer-administered structured questionnaire. SETTING: Australian capital cities. PARTICIPANTS: Australians aged 16 years or older who used ecstasy/MDMA and other illicit stimulants on a monthly or more frequent basis and resided in a capital city, recruited via social media and word-of-mouth (n ~ 800 each year). MEASUREMENTS: Key outcome measures were self-reported illicit drug market indicators (price, purity and availability) and, in 2020 only, perceived change in drug use (including alcohol and tobacco) since March 2020 and reasons for this change. FINDINGS: For most drugs, participants reported either no change or a reduction in their use since COVID-19 restrictions were introduced. Ecstasy/MDMA was the drug most frequently cited as reduced in use (n = 552, 70% of those reporting recent use), mainly due to reduced opportunities for socialization. While market indicators were largely stable across most drugs, the odds of perceiving MDMA capsules as 'high' in purity decreased compared with 2016-19 [adjusted odds ratio (aOR) = 0.72, 95% confidence interval (CI) = 0.53-0.99], as did perceiving them as 'easy' to obtain (aOR = 0.42, CI = 0.26-0.67). The odds of perceiving cocaine and methamphetamine crystal as 'easy' to obtain also decreased (aOR = 0.67, CI = 0.46-0.96 and aOR = 0.12, CI = 0.04-0.41, respectively). CONCLUSIONS: After COVID-19-related restrictions were introduced in Australia, use of ecstasy/MDMA, related stimulants and other licit and illicit drugs mainly appeared to remain stable or decrease, primarily due to impediments to socialization.

Profile and correlates of colorimetric reagent kit use among people who use ecstasy/MDMA and other illegal stimulants in Australia.

BACKGROUND: Colorimetric reagent kits can provide information about the compounds present in drug samples. This study aimed to identify patterns and correlates of colorimetric reagent kit use, as well as behavioural outcomes of testing, amongst people who use illegal stimulants in a context that lacks permanent government-sanctioned drug checking services. METHODS: Australians residing in capital cities who reported regularly using ecstasy/MDMA and/or other illegal stimulants ≥monthly in the past six months were recruited via social media and word-of-mouth from April-July 2019 (N = 792). Participants were asked about testing the contents and/or purity of illegal drugs, and features of last colorimetric reagent kit use. Logistic regression identified correlates of last using a kit (referent: no use of drug checking technology to test drug contents/purity in the past year). RESULTS: Over one-third (36%) reported testing drug contents and/or purity; of this group, 86% had last used a colorimetric reagent kit. On the last occasion, 52% reported someone else had conducted testing; 58% said testing occurred <24 h before planned drug use; and 24% reported testing for quantity of a substance. Correlates of drug checking comprised: being younger, male, past six-month use of new psychoactive substances, accessing community-based health services for alcohol or other drug reasons, selling drugs for cash profit, obtaining information from peers who had tried the drug, and searching online for reports of the drug by stamp/appearance. The majority (84%) tested a substance they had been sold and/or given as MDMA; of these, 87% detected MDMA. Of those who expected and detected MDMA, 29% and 11% reported results to their peers and dealer, respectively. CONCLUSION: People who use ecstasy/MDMA and/or other illegal stimulants seek out objective information about substance contents. In countries that lack permanent government-sanctioned drug checking services, it is important to acknowledge that people already engage in drug checking but with suboptimal technologies and without tailored specialist advice and education.

Double dropping down under: Correlates of simultaneous consumption of two ecstasy pills in a sample of Australian outdoor music festival attendees.

INTRODUCTION AND AIMS: The term 'double dropping' refers to a person consuming two drugs simultaneously, typically two ecstasy pills. This practice has been reported in numerous countries, including Australia; however, the prevalence and correlates of double dropping among ecstasy users is unknown. Double dropping is particularly risky when adulteration of 'ecstasy' with novel substances and higher dosages of MDMA in pure ecstasy pills have both been increasingly reported. This paper investigates the prevalence and correlates of double dropping in a purposive sample of Australian festival-goers who used ecstasy at the last festival they attended. DESIGN AND METHODS: A web survey was completed by almost 2000 Australian festival-goers. The analytic sample (n = 777) was 59% male and had a median age of 20 years (interquartile range 19-23). RESULTS: Almost half (48%) of respondents who used ecstasy pills reported double dropping in association with the last festival attended. Multivariable logistic regression found respondents who were younger, male, more frequent ecstasy users, more frequent festival-goers, had a preference for electronic dance music, attended a multi-day festival and used ecstasy in pill form were at greater odds of reporting double dropping at the last festival attended. DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSIONS: Double dropping was a commonly reported practice among festival-goers in this purposive sample. While this practice may reflect historically low-dose ecstasy pills in Australia, the changing contexts of novel drugs and increasing MDMA purity may warrant consideration of harm-reduction interventions and drug-checking services which could help festival-goers make more informed decisions about drug dosage.

Drug detection dogs at Australian outdoor music festivals: Deterrent, detection and iatrogenic effects.

BACKGROUND: Recent drug-related deaths at Australian music festivals have led to increasing concern about the risk of future harm, but contention about how to effectively respond. One hotly debated strategy has been the use of drug detection dogs which currently operate at festivals across Australia, despite claims they are ineffective and contribute to risky drug use practices. This paper aims to investigate responses to the expected presence, and sightings, of drug dogs at the last festival attended. METHODS: An anonymous online survey was completed by almost 2000 Australian festival-goers. The largest subsample used in the analyses for this paper (n= 647) was 59% male and had a median age of 20 (IQR = 18-22). RESULTS: Of those who expected dogs to be present at their last festival (n= 647), only 4% reported that this threat led them to decide not to take drugs. Other responses included: concealing their drugs well (48%), getting someone else to carry their drugs (15%), buying their drugs inside (11%), taking less easily detected drugs (10%) and taking drugs before entering (7%). Of those who carried drugs in (n= 418), 10% concealed them internally and 1% swallowed them to retrieve inside. Of those who had drugs on their person when seeing a dog (n= 189), 10% reported consuming drugs in response. No respondents reported being detected with drugs due to a positive identification. CONCLUSION: Almost all festival-goers surveyed did not report being deterred from drug usage by the expected presence of drug dogs. Instead, a variety of alternative responses to avoid detection were reported, many of which could place festival-goers at greater risk of experiencing drug-related harms. In the face of mounting evidence of both ineffectiveness and iatrogenic effects, the use of drug detection dogs at Australian music festivals should be urgently reconsidered.