A phase I/II study of intrathecal trastuzumab in human epidermal growth factor receptor 2-positive (HER2-positive) cancer with leptomeningeal metastases: Safety, efficacy, and cerebrospinal fluid pharmacokinetics.

BACKGROUND: Patients with human epidermal growth factor receptor 2-positive (HER2-positive) cancers have a high incidence of central nervous system (CNS) spread, but unfortunately systemic trastuzumab which targets the HER2 receptor has little CNS penetration. The purpose of this study was to determine the maximum-tolerated dose of intrathecal trastuzumab and its efficacy in patients with HER2-positive leptomeningeal disease (LMD). METHODS: This multicenter study enrolled 34 LMD patients in a combined phase I/II study in treating patients with intrathecal trastuzumab. Any HER2-positive histology was allowed in the phase I; the phase II was limited to HER2-positive breast cancer. RESULTS: Intrathecal trastuzumab was well-tolerated, with one dose limiting toxicity of grade 4 (arachnoiditis) occurring at the 80 mg twice weekly dose. The recommended phase II dose was 80 mg intrathecally twice weekly. Twenty-six patients at dose level 80 mg were included in evaluation for efficacy: partial response was seen in 5 (19.2%) patients, stable disease was observed in 13 (50.0%), and 8 (30.8%) of the patients had progressive disease. Median overall survival (OS) for phase II dose treated patients was 8.3 months (95% CI 5.2-19.6). The phase II HER2-positive breast cancer patients median OS was 10.5 months (95% CI 5.2-20.9). Pharmacokinetic (PK) studies were limited in the setting of concurrent systemic trastuzumab administration, however, did show stable cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) concentrations with repeated dosing suggest that trastuzumab does not accumulate in the CSF in toxic concentrations. CONCLUSION: This study suggests promise for potentially improved outcomes of HER-positive LMD patients when treated with intrathecal trastuzumab while remaining safe and well-tolerated for patients.

Neural stem cell delivery of an oncolytic adenovirus in newly diagnosed malignant glioma: a first-in-human, phase 1, dose-escalation trial.

BACKGROUND: Malignant glioma is the most common and lethal primary brain tumour, with dismal survival rates and no effective treatment. We examined the safety and activity of NSC-CRAd-S-pk7, an engineered oncolytic adenovirus delivered by neural stem cells (NSCs), in patients with newly diagnosed high-grade glioma. METHODS: This was a first-in-human, open-label, phase 1, dose-escalation trial done to determine the maximal tolerated dose of NSC-CRAd-S-pk7, following a 3 + 3 design. Patients with newly diagnosed, histologically confirmed, high-grade gliomas (WHO grade III or IV) were recruited. After neurosurgical resection, NSC-CRAd-S-pk7 was injected into the walls of the resection cavity. The first patient cohort received a dose starting at 6·25 × 1010 viral particles administered by 5·00 × 107 NSCs, the second cohort a dose of 1·25 × 1011 viral particles administered by 1·00 × 108 NSCs, and the third cohort a dose of 1·875 × 1011 viral particles administered by 1·50 × 108 NSCs. No further dose escalation was planned. Within 10-14 days, treatment with temozolomide and radiotherapy was initiated. Primary endpoints were safety and toxicity profile and the maximum tolerated dose for a future phase 2 trial. All analyses were done in all patients who were included in the trial and received the study treatment and were not excluded from the study. Recruitment is complete and the trial is finished. The trial is registered with ClinicalTrials.gov, NCT03072134. FINDINGS: Between April 24, 2017, and Nov 13, 2019, 12 patients with newly diagnosed, malignant gliomas were recruited and included in the safety analysis. Histopathological evaluation identified 11 (92%) of 12 patients with glioblastoma and one (8%) of 12 patients with anaplastic astrocytoma. The median follow-up was 18 months (IQR 14-22). One patient receiving 1·50 × 108 NSCs loading 1·875 × 1011 viral particles developed viral meningitis (grade 3) due to the inadvertent injection of NSC-CRAd-S-pk7 into the lateral ventricle. Otherwise, treatment was safe as no formal dose-limiting toxicity was reached, so 1·50 × 108 NSCs loading 1·875 × 1011 viral particles was recommended as a phase 2 trial dose. There were no treatment-related deaths. The median progression-free survival was 9·1 months (95% CI 8·5-not reached) and median overall survival was 18·4 months (15·7-not reached). INTERPRETATION: NSC-CRAd-S-pk7 treatment was feasible and safe. Our immunological and histopathological findings support continued investigation of NSC-CRAd-S-pk7 in a phase 2/3 clinical trial. FUNDING: US National Institutes of Health.

Long-term glioblastoma survival following recovery from cytomegalovirus colitis: A case report.

Survival outcomes for patients with glioblastoma (GBM) are universally poor with only a small percentage of patients surviving five years beyond initial diagnosis. Activation of the immune system against tumor cells is the basis of immunotherapy and aims to facilitate long-term immune surveillance and tumor suppression. Cytomegalovirus (CMV) has emerged as an immunologic target in GBM given that tumor cells have been shown to express the CMV-associated proteins IE1 and pp65. Moreover, vaccine therapy targeting CMV antigens has promoted improved survival outcomes with long-term survivors. In this report, we present the case of a 69 year-old woman with GBM who survived seven years post-diagnosis. Following tumor resection, the patient underwent concomitant radiation and temozolomide therapy that was complicated by CMV colitis and abdominal abscesses. Despite not receiving adjuvant temozolomide, the patient demonstrated a five year progression-free survival before requiring re-resection for radiation necrosis. Following re-resection, the patient survived for two additional years. As the patient's tumor stained positive for CMV antigens IE1 and pp65, it is hypothesized that she developed an immune response against CMV during recovery that contributed to anti-tumor surveillance and prolonged survival. Overall, this case supports further investigation into the role of CMV and immunotherapy in GBM.

A phase II trial evaluating the effects and intra-tumoral penetration of bortezomib in patients with recurrent malignant gliomas.

One resistance mechanism in malignant gliomas (MG) involves nuclear factor-κB (NF-κB) activation. Bortezomib prevents proteasomal degradation of NF-κB inhibitor α (NFKBIA), an endogenous regulator of NF-κB signaling, thereby limiting the effects of NF-κB on tumor survival and resistance. A presurgical phase II trial of bortezomib in recurrent MG was performed to determine drug concentration in tumor tissue and effects on NFKBIA. Patients were enrolled after signing an IRB approved informed consent. Treatment was bortezomib 1.7 mg/m(2) IV on days 1, 4 and 8 and then surgery on day 8 or 9. Post-operatively, treatment was Temozolomide (TMZ) 75 mg/m(2) PO on days 1-7 and 14-21 and bortezomib 1.7 mg/m(2) on days 7 and 21 [1 cycle was (1) month]. Ten patients were enrolled (8 M and 2 F) with 9 having surgery. Median age and KPS were 50 (42-64) and 90 % (70-100). The median cycles post-operatively was 2 (0-4). The trial was stopped as no patient had a PFS-6. All patients are deceased. Paired plasma and tumor bortezomib concentration measurements revealed higher drug concentrations in tumor than in plasma; NFKBIA protein levels were similar in drug-treated vs. drug-naïve tumor specimens. Nuclear 20S proteasome was less in postoperative samples. Postoperative treatment with TMZ and bortezomib did not show clinical activity. Bortezomib appears to sequester in tumor but pharmacological effects on NFKBIA were not seen, possibly obscured due to downregulation of NFKBIA during tumor progression. Changes in nuclear 20S could be marker of bortezomib effect on tumor.

Anaplastic astrocytoma.

Anaplastic astrocytoma (AA) is a diffusely infiltrating, malignant, astrocytic, primary brain tumor. AA is currently defined by histology although future classification schemes will include molecular alterations. AA can be separated into subgroups, which share similar molecular profiles, age at diagnosis and median survival, based on 1p/19q co-deletion status and IDH mutation status. AA with co-deletion of chromosomes 1p and 19q and IDH mutation have the best prognosis. AA with IDH mutation and no 1p/19q co-deletion have intermediate prognosis and AA with wild-type IDH have the worst prognosis and share many molecular alterations with glioblastoma. Treatment of noncodeleted AA based on preliminary results from the CATNON clinical trial consists of maximal safe resection followed by radiotherapy with post-radiotherapy temozolomide (TMZ) chemotherapy. The role of concurrent TMZ and whether IDH1 subgroups benefit from TMZ is currently being evaluated in the recently completed randomized, prospective Phase III clinical trial, CATNON.

A randomized phase I/II study of ABT-888 in combination with temozolomide in recurrent temozolomide resistant glioblastoma: an NRG oncology RTOG group study.

This study tested the hypothesis that ABT-888 (velparib), a poly (ADP-ribose) polymerase (PARP) inhibitor, can modulate temozolomide (TMZ) resistance in recurrent TMZ refractory glioblastoma patients. The combination regimen (TMZ/ABT-888) was tested using two randomized schedules (5 vs. 21 days), with 6-month progression free survival (PFS6) as the primary endpoint. The maximum tolerated dose (MTD) for TMZ using the 21 day of 28 TMZ schedule, in concert with 40 mg BID ABT-888 was determined in a phase I portion of this study, and previously reported to be 75 mg/m(2) (arm1). The MTD for ABT-888 (40 mg BID) and the 5 of 28 day TMZ (150-200 mg/m(2)) schedule was known from prior trials (arm2). Two cohorts were studied: bevacizumab (BEV) naïve (n = 151), and BEV refractory (n = 74). Overall ten patients were ineligible. The incidence rate of grade 3/4 myelosuppression over all was 20.0 %. For the BEV refractory cohort, the PFS 6 was 4.4 %; for the BEV naïve cohort, PFS6 was 17 %. Overall survival was similar for both arms in both the BEV naïve [median survival time (MST) 10.3 M; 95 % CI 8.4-12] and BEV refractory cohort (MST 4.7 M; 95 %CI 3.5-5.6). The median PFS was essentially the same for both arms and both cohorts at ~2.0 M (95 % CI 1.9-2.1).

Bevacizumab and other novel therapies for recurrent oligodendroglial tumors.

Oligodendroglioma (WHO Grade 2) and anaplastic oligodendroglioma (WHO Grade 3) are glial tumors composed of neoplastic cellular elements that resemble oligodendrocytes. The treatment of recurrent, alkylator refractory oligodendroglial tumors is challenging given the paucity of effective treatment and lack of randomized controlled trials on which to base therapy. Notwithstanding the lack of prospective, randomized data, treatment of oligodendroglial tumors with bevacizumab can be recommended tentatively recognizing that preliminary studies suggest efficacy. Somatic mutations of the isocitrate dehydrogenase enzymes (IDH1 and IDH2) appear to play a critical role in the pathogenesis of most oligodendroglial tumors and agents that target these mutations are a potential therapeutic option. Additionally, reversal of CpG island hypermethylated phenotype status through inhibition of DNA methyltransferase with an inhibitor such as decitabine may provide a target for future studies.

Phase II study of panobinostat in combination with bevacizumab for recurrent glioblastoma and anaplastic glioma.

BACKGROUND: Panobinostat is a histone deacetylase inhibitor with antineoplastic and antiangiogenic effects in glioma that may work synergistically with bevacizumab. We conducted a multicenter phase II trial of panobinostat combined with bevacizumab in patients with recurrent high-grade glioma (HGG). METHODS: Patients with recurrent HGG were treated with oral panobinostat 30 mg 3 times per week, every other week, in combination with bevacizumab 10 mg/kg every other week. The primary endpoint was a 6-month progression-fee survival (PFS6) rate for participants with recurrent glioblastoma (GBM). Patients with recurrent anaplastic glioma (AG) were evaluated as an exploratory arm of the study. RESULTS: At interim analysis, the GBM arm did not meet criteria for continued accrual, and the GBM arm was closed. A total of 24 patients with GBM were accrued prior to closure. The PFS6 rate was 30.4% (95%, CI 12.4%-50.7%), median PFS was 5 months (range, 3-9 months), and median overall survival (OS) was 9 months (range, 6-19 months). Accrual in the AG arm continued to completion, and a total of 15 patients were enrolled. The PFS6 rate was 46.7% (range, 21%-73%), median PFS was 7 months (range, 2-10 months), and median OS was 17 months (range, 5 months-27 months). CONCLUSIONS: This phase II study of panobinostat and bevacizumab in participants with recurrent GBM did not meet criteria for continued accrual, and the GBM cohort of the study was closed. Although it was reasonably well tolerated, the addition of panobinostat to bevacizumab did not significantly improve PFS6 compared with historical controls of bevacizumab monotherapy in either cohort.

Economics of Malignant Gliomas: A Critical Review.

PURPOSE: Approximately 18,500 persons are diagnosed with malignant glioma in the United States annually. Few studies have investigated the comprehensive economic costs. We reviewed the literature to examine costs to patients with malignant glioma and their families, payers, and society. METHODS: A total of 18 fully extracted studies were included. Data were collected on direct and indirect costs, and cost estimates were converted to US dollars using the conversion rate calculated from the study's publication date, and updated to 2011 values after adjustment for inflation. A standardized data abstraction form was used. Data were extracted by one reviewer and checked by another. RESULTS: Before approval of effective chemotherapeutic agents for malignant gliomas, estimated total direct medical costs in the United States for surgery and radiation therapy per patient ranged from $50,600 to $92,700. The addition of temozolomide (TMZ) and bevacizumab to glioblastoma treatment regimens has resulted in increased overall costs for glioma care. Although health care costs are now less front-loaded, they have increased over the course of illness. Analysis using a willingness-to-pay threshold of $50,000 per quality-adjusted life-year suggests that the benefits of TMZ fall on the edge of acceptable therapies. Furthermore, indirect medical costs, such as productivity losses, are not trivial. CONCLUSION: With increased chemotherapy use for malignant glioma, the paradigm for treatment and associated out-of-pocket and total medical costs continue to evolve. Larger out-of-pocket costs may influence the choice of chemotherapeutic agents, the economic implications of which should be evaluated prospectively.

Diffusion abnormalities of the corpus callosum in patients receiving bevacizumab for malignant brain tumors: suspected treatment toxicity.

Bevacizumab has been reported to cause diffusion restriction in the tumor bed of patients with malignant gliomas. This study evaluated prolonged diffusion restriction, in the corpus callosum (CC), of patients with malignant brain tumors treated with bevacizumab. We retrospectively reviewed our database of patients treated with bevacizumab for malignant brain tumors looking for those with restricted diffusion in the CC. CC ADC ratio measurements were obtained prior to and following treatment. Correlation was made with biopsy (n = 3) and MR perfusion (n = 7) and PET (n = 4). The temporal evolution of these changes relative to therapy was examined with mixed effects regression analysis. Nine patients (eight malignant gliomas, one malignant meningioma) out of 146 patients were found to have developed areas of diffusion restriction in the CC. These areas tended to enlarge and coalesce over serial MRIs and persisted for up to 22 months. Hypoperfusion was demonstrated in MR perfusion in 7/7. PET was hypometabolic in all 4. Biopsy of the CC showed no tumor in 3/3. ADC ratio measurements indicated a significant overall effect of time (F(16,60) = 11.2; p < 0.0001), consistent with persistent diffusion restriction over the measured time periods. Bevacizumab causes prolonged diffusion restriction in the CC. The negative MR perfusion, FDG PET and histopathology suggest this is a toxicity of bevacizumab and not active tumor. Awareness of these changes can assist in patient care.

A phase II trial of PTK787/ZK 222584 in recurrent or progressive radiation and surgery refractory meningiomas.

When surgery and radiation are no longer treatment options, salvage systemic therapy has been used for recurrent meningiomas with little compelling evidence to suggest effectiveness. Patients with surgery and radiation refractory recurrent meningiomas were treated with the oral multifunctional tyrosine kinase inhibitor PTK787/ZK 222584 (PTK787) at a dose of 500 mg twice a day. Each treatment cycle was 4 weeks with MRI done every 8 weeks. Twenty-five patients (14 men; 11 women) with a median age of 59 years and KPS of 80 were treated. Meningioma WHO Grade was I in 2 patients, II in 14 patients and III in 8 patients; 1 patient had a hemangiopericytoma. All patients had prior surgery, external beam radiation therapy or radiosurgery and 11 patients prior systemic chemotherapy. Median number of cycles of PTK 787 administered was 4 (range <1-22). Best response in the 22 evaluable patients was stable disease in 15 (68.2 %). Predominant PTK787 related toxicities included fatigue (60 %), hypertension (24 %) and elevated transaminases (24 %). Grade II patients had a progression free survival (PFS)-6 of 64.3 %, a median PFS of 6.5 months and an overall survival (OS) of 26.0 months; grade III patients had a PFS-6 of 37.5 %, median PFS of 3.6 months and OS 23 months. PTK787 was modestly toxic at the dose of 500 mg administered twice per day. Activity as determined by PFS-6 suggests that targeting PDGF/VEGF pathway warrants further investigation.

Concordance of patient and caregiver reports in evaluating quality of life in patients with malignant gliomas and an assessment of caregiver burden.

BACKGROUND: Given the neurocognitive impairment experienced by many patients with malignant gliomas, caregiver reports can be critical in assessing the quality of life (QOL) of these patients. In this study, we explored whether assessment of patient QOL by the primary caregiver shows concordance with the patient's self-reported QOL, and we quantified the burden faced by caregivers. METHODS: QOL of 45 patients was evaluated by both the patient and primary caregiver on 3 or more separate occasions using the Functional Assessment of Cancer Therapy-Brain (FACT-Br) instrument, and concordance between the 2 reports was evaluated. Caregiver burden was measured using the Caregiver Quality of Life Index-Cancer (CQOL-C) instrument. RESULTS: Overall, good concordance was observed between the patient and caregiver FACT-Br reports (intraclass correlation coefficient = 0.74). Patient-reported FACT-Br scores were 4.75 (95% CI, 1.44-8.05) points higher than paired caregiver reports on the 200-point scale (P = .008); however, this difference did not achieve clinical significance. Caregiver burden, as measured by the CQOL-C, was significantly greater among caregivers in this study than those previously reported for caregivers of patients with lung, breast, or prostate cancer (P < .001). CONCLUSIONS: Despite minor discrepancies in caregiver assessments of patient QOL relative to patient self-reports, our results suggest that the caregiver assessments can serve as adequate proxies for patient reports. Our results also illustrate the particularly heavy burden faced by caregivers of patients with malignant glioma. Further research into both of these areas is warranted.

Financial burden experienced by patients undergoing treatment for malignant gliomas.

BACKGROUND: Patients undergoing treatment for malignant gliomas (MGs) can encounter medical costs beyond what their insurance covers. The magnitude and type of costs experienced by patients are unknown. The purpose of this study was to have patients or their families report on the medical costs incurred during the patients MG treatment. METHODS: Patients with MG were eligible if they were within 6 months of diagnosis or tumor recurrence. Patients had to be ≥18 years of age, fluent in English, and not aphasic. Weekly logbooks were issued to patients for recording associated costs for ∼6 months or until tumor progression. "Out-of-pocket" (OOP) costs included medical and nonmedical expenses that were not reimbursed by insurance. Direct medical costs included hospital and physician bills. Direct nonmedical costs included transportation, parking, and other related items. Indirect medical costs included lost wages. Costs were analyzed to provide mean and medians with range of expenses. RESULTS: Forty-three patients provided cost data for a median of 12 weeks. There were 25 men and 18 women with a median age of 57 years (range, 24y-73y); 79% were married, and 49% reported annual income >$75 000. Health insurance coverage was preferred provider organizations for 58% of patients, and median deductible was $1 500. Median monthly OOP cost was $1 342 (mean, $2 451; range, $333.41-$17 267.16). The highest OOP median costs were medication copayments ($710; range, $0-13 611.20), transportation ($327; range, $0-$1 927), and hospital bill copayments ($403; range, $0-$4 000). Median lost wages were $7 500, and median lost days of work were 12.8. CONCLUSIONS: OOP costs for MG patients can be significant and comprise direct and indirect costs across several areas. Informing patients about expected costs could limit additional duress and allow financial support systems to be implemented.

Anaplastic astrocytoma.

OPINION STATEMENT: Standard treatment of anaplastic astrocytoma (AA) in good performance patients consists of maximal safe surgical resection followed by focal, fractionated, external beam radiotherapy (RT) alone or in combination with concurrent and adjuvant temozolomide (TMZ). Since prospective data regarding the use of chemoradiotherapy for AA is lacking, the practice is based on the extrapolation of results from a randomized study in glioblastoma (GB). Whether the data from the GB study can and should be extrapolated is controversial, although a large multicenter, randomized, phase III study is underway to define optimal initial AA treatment. Patients should be tapered off corticosteroids completely or to the lowest dose necessary to treat neurologic dysfunction. Anti-epileptic drugs (AED) are not indicated unless there is a history of seizure; levetiracetam is the preferred AED in malignant glioma (MG). Unless there is evidence of intracranial hemorrhage, venous thromboembolism (VTE) should be treated with low-molecular-weight heparin (LMWH) therapy. At recurrence, patients with good performance status are usually treated with cytotoxic chemotherapy following, or in lieu of, repeat surgery. TMZ is the preferred chemotherapeutic agent in patients without prior exposure; lomustine is recommended for tumors resistant to TMZ. In patients with neurologic dysfunction secondary to tumor edema and mass effect who are not amenable to surgery, the use of bevacizumab is associated with improved neurologic function and better quality of life. Given the limited treatment options at tumor recurrence, consideration for enrollment on a clinical trial is encouraged.

Brainstem glioma: a review.

Brainstem gliomas (BGs) are a heterogenous group of gliomas that occur predominately in children. They can be separated into groups on the basis of anatomy and clinical behavior: diffuse intrinsic pontine glioma (DIPG), exophytic medullary glioma, and tectal glioma. DIPG is the commonest BG. Median age at onset is 6.5 years and median survival is less than 1 year. Adults with DIPG survive longer, suggesting a less aggressive and biologically different tumor from that in children. Patients present with cranial nerve dysfunction, long tract signs, or ataxia, either in isolation or in combination. Magnetic resonance imaging shows an infiltrative lesion occupying most of the pons and contrast enhancement is usually not prominent. Standard treatment is fractionated radiotherapy. Platelet-derived growth factor receptor alpha and epidermal growth factor receptor mutations have been identified. Inhibitors of these growth factor receptors are being evaluated in clinical trials. Exophytic medullary and tectal gliomas are relatively indolent tumors that can often be followed closely without treatment.

Pharmacokinetics and efficacy of pemetrexed in patients with brain or leptomeningeal metastases.

Brain metastases (BM) and leptomeningeal metastases (LM) are devastating neurologic complications. Pemetrexed is a multi-targeted anti-folate agent approved for treatment of nonsquamous non-small cell lung cancer but has anti-tumor activity in other solid tumors. We performed two trials using pemetrexed in patients with BM and LM to assess CSF penetration and anti-tumor activity. Patients were treated with intravenous pemetrexed at doses of 500 (n = 3), 750 (n = 3), 900 (n = 12) or 1,050 mg/m(2) (n = 3) every 3 weeks. Neuro-imaging was done every 6 weeks. Matched CSF and plasma samples were obtained serially from three patients with Ommaya reservoirs; the remaining patients had a single paired collection. Twenty-one patients (15 women and six men) with median age of 50 years and median KPS of 90 were treated. Primary tumors included breast (13), lung (4), colorectal (1), endometrial (1), esophageal (1) and pinealoblastoma (1). Nine patients had prior whole brain RT and median number of prior chemotherapies was two including prior methotrexate in four patients. Median pemetrexed doses administered was three (range 1-14). Responses included one partial response, ten stable disease and ten progressive disease. Median time to progression and survival was 2.7 and 7.3 months; PFS six was 22 %. No major toxicities were seen. Pemetrexed distributed from the plasma to the CSF within 1-4 h with the resulting CSF concentrations < 5 % of plasma. Pemetrexed was tolerated in solid tumor patients with CNS metastases. Limited anti-tumor activity was seen, which might have been due to low CSF concentrations, although some patients displayed prolonged benefit.

Phase I study of arsenic trioxide and temozolomide in combination with radiation therapy in patients with malignant gliomas.

To evaluate the toxicity and maximum tolerated dose (MTD) of arsenic trioxide (ATO) in combination with temozolomide (TMZ) and radiation therapy (RT) in malignant gliomas. A 3 + 3 dose escalation study was performed in patients with newly diagnosed glioblastoma, anaplastic astrocytoma (AA), and anaplastic oligoastrocytoma (AOA). All patients received RT 59-61 Gy in 28-33 fractions, TMZ for 42 days, and ATO 1-2 h prior to RT for 5 days during the first week, then twice weekly until completing RT. Dose levels (DL) were: (1) TMZ 60 mg/m(2)/ATO 0.2 mg/kg; (2) TMZ 75 mg/m(2)/ATO 0.2 mg/kg; (3) TMZ 75 mg/m(2)/ATO 0.25 mg/kg. Dose-limiting toxicity (DLT) was defined as grade 3 non-hematologic toxicity or grade 4 toxicity of any type from enrollment until 3 weeks after finishing RT. 17 patients (13 glioblastoma, 4 AA/AOA) were accrued. Median age was 52 (range 25-80). Median KPS was 90 %. DLT's occurred at DL 2 (grade 4 transaminase elevation) and DL 3 (grade 4 neutropenia and grade 3 QTc prolongation). The MTD of TMZ 75 mg/m(2)/ATO 0.2 mg/kg was safe and well tolerated. A phase II study evaluating the efficacy of this combination is underway.

Metastatic glioblastoma: case presentations and a review of the literature.

Extracranial metastases from glioblastoma (GBM) are uncommon with an estimated incidence of less than 2%. We report two cases of metastatic GBM seen within an 8-week period followed by a literature review. We attempted to identify common factors or a causative mechanism. Factors that predominated among the reviewed cases included male gender, tumor location, and younger age. Causative mechanisms were not apparent. While metastatic disease remains rare, it might be occurring with increasing frequency. This trend might be due to increased diagnosis, better imaging, a more extensive physician workup, or an increase in survival. Metastatic GBM can present and progress quite rapidly, and repeat evaluations of persistent or worsening complaints among GBM patients are warranted. Early diagnosis of metastatic disease spread can help to expedite alleviation of patients' discomfort, in an already aggressive disease process.

Treatment of brain metastases: chemotherapy.

Although systemic therapy is the primary therapeutic modality for disseminated cancer, it plays a limited role in the treatment of brain metastases (BM). This review discusses the blood-brain barrier (BBB), interactions of systemic therapy with supportive care agents used in BM patients, the role of primary tumor sensitivity in the treatment of BM, and unique issues related to the specific primary tumor histologies. The specialized physiology of the brain vasculature that forms the BBB may preclude large and/or water-soluble systemic agents from reaching BM. Once metastases grow larger than 1-2 mm, there is preclinical and clinical evidence that the BBB is at least partially disrupted. Thus, the best treatment strategy in established BM may be to use an agent that is effective against the primary tumor regardless of its apparent BBB permeability. The use of anticonvulsants and corticosteroids must be carefully considered as they can decrease the effectiveness of systemic anti-tumor therapy. Despite the absence of level I data to routinely recommend the use of systemic therapy for solid tumor BM, these treatments should be considered in patients with good performance status and multiple, small metastases, especially if the primary tumor is chemosensitive. The systemic treatment of BM will continue to evolve as effective small-molecule inhibitors are developed and treatment regimens for each specific primary tumor are optimized.