In-situ calibration of clinical built-in KAP meters with traceability to a primary standard using a reference KAP meter.

The air kerma-area product (KAP) is used for settings of diagnostic reference levels. The International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA) recommends that doses in diagnostic radiology (including the KAP values) be estimated with an accuracy of at least ± 7% (k = 2). Industry standards defined by the International Electrotechnical Commission (IEC) specify that the uncertainty of KAP meter measurements should be less than ± 25% (k = 2). Medical physicists willing to comply with the IAEA's recommendation need to apply correction factors to KAP values reported by x-ray units. The aim of this work is to present and evaluate a calibration method for built-in KAP meters on clinical x-ray units. The method is based on (i) a tandem calibration method, which uses a reference KAP meter calibrated to measure the incident radiation, (ii) measurements using an energy-independent ionization chamber to correct for the energy dependence of the reference KAP meter, and (iii) Monte Carlo simulations of the beam quality correction factors that correct for differences between beam qualities at a standard laboratory and the clinic. The method was applied to the KAP meter in a Siemens Aristos FX plus unit. It was found that values reported by the built-in KAP meter differed from the more accurate values measured by the reference KAP meter by more than 25% for high tube voltages (more than 140 kV) and heavily filtered beams (0.3 mm Cu). Associated uncertainties were too high to claim that the IEC's limit of 25% was exceeded. Nevertheless the differences were high enough to justify the need for a more accurate calibration of built-in KAP meters.

Nanodosimetric measurements and calculations in a neutron therapy beam.

A comparison of calculated and measured values of the dose mean lineal energy (y(D)) for the former neutron therapy beam at Louvain-la-Neuve is reported. The measurements were made with wall-less tissue-equivalent proportional counters using the variance-covariance method and simulating spheres with diameters between 10 nm and 15 microm. The calculated y(D)-values were obtained from simulated energy distributions of neutrons and charged particles inside an A-150 phantom and from published y(D)-values for mono-energetic ions. The energy distributions of charged particles up to oxygen were determined with the SHIELD-HIT code using an MCNPX simulated neutron spectrum as an input. The mono-energetic ion y(D)-values in the range 3-100 nm were taken from track-structure simulations in water vapour done with PITS/KURBUC. The large influence on the dose mean lineal energy from the light ion (A > 4) absorbed dose fraction, may explain an observed difference between experiment and calculation. The latter being larger than earlier reported result. Below 50 nm, the experimental values increase while the calculated decrease.

Nanodosimetry in a clinical neutron therapy beam using the variance-covariance method and Monte Carlo simulations.

Nanodosimetric single-event distributions or their mean values may contribute to a better understanding of how radiation induced biological damages are produced. They may also provide means for radiation quality characterization in therapy beams. Experimental nanodosimetry is however technically challenging and Monte Carlo simulations are valuable as a complementary tool for such investigations. The dose-mean lineal energy was determined in a therapeutic p(65)+Be neutron beam and in a (60)Co gamma beam using low-pressure gas detectors and the variance-covariance method. The neutron beam was simulated using the condensed history Monte Carlo codes MCNPX and SHIELD-HIT. The dose-mean lineal energy was calculated using the simulated dose and fluence spectra together with published data from track-structure simulations. A comparison between simulated and measured results revealed some systematic differences and different dependencies on the simulated object size. The results show that both experimental and theoretical approaches are needed for an accurate dosimetry in the nanometer region. In line with previously reported results, the dose-mean lineal energy determined at 10 nm was shown to be related to clinical RBE values in the neutron beam and in a simulated 175 MeV proton beam as well.

Calibration of dosemeters used in mammography with different X ray qualities: EUROMET project no. 526.

The effect of different X ray radiation qualities on the calibration of mammographic dosemeters was investigated within the framework of a EUROMET (European Collaboration in Measurement Standards) project. The calibration coefficients for two ionization chambers and two semiconductor detectors were established in 13 dosimetry calibration laboratories for radiation qualities used in mammography. They were compared with coefficients for other radiation qualities, including those defined in ISO 4037-1, with first half value layers in the mammographic range. The results indicate that the choice of the radiation quality is not crucial for instruments with a small energy dependence of the response. However, the radiation quality has to be chosen carefully if instruments with a marked dependence of their response to the radiation energy are calibrated.

Response investigations of a TEPC in high energy proton and neutron beams using the variance method.

Results from measurements in proton and neutron beams between 68 and 174 MeV at the T. Svedberg Laboratory in Uppsala are presented. The result indicate that a TEPC might underestimate the high-energy contribution to H*(10) in cosmic radiation applications such as measurements onboard aircraft.

Performance testing of personal dosemeters from eleven dosimetry services in Sweden.

The Swedish regulation, SSI FS 98:5, requires that radiological workers of category A use dosemeters from an approved personal dosimetry service. The 11 services operating in Sweden at the moment use five different types of dosemeter. All have been tested for their ability to determine Hp(10) and some of them to determine Hp(0.07) according to the European Commission report Radiation Protection 73, EUR 14852, of 1994. The five unique systems have been tested regarding the angular and energy dependence of the response of the dosemeters. The test points for the determination of Hp(10) are all, except one, within the trumpet curve and for the unique systems it is shown that the uncertainty related to angular response at three different energies is within the required +/- 40% except for the lowest X ray quality 40 kV. The energy dependence dominates over the directional dependence and the choice of radiation quality for calibration is of great importance for the system performance.

Long-term stability of liquid ionization chambers with regard to their qualification as local reference dosimeters for low dose-rate absorbed dose measurements in water.

The long-term sensitivity and calibration stability of liquid ionization chambers (LICs) has been studied at a local and a secondary standards dosimetry laboratory over a period of 3 years. The chambers were transported several times by mail between the two laboratories for measurements. The LICs used in this work are designed for absorbed dose measurements in the dose rate region of 0.1-100 mGy min(-1) and have a liquid layer thickness of 1 mm and a sensitive volume of 16.2 mm3. The liquids used as sensitive media in the chambers are mixtures of isooctane (C8H18) and tetramethylsilane (Si(CH3)4) in different proportions (about 2 to 1). Operating at a polarizing voltage of 300 V the leakage current of the chambers was stable and never exceeded 3% of the observable current at a dose rate of about 1 mGy min(-1). The volume sensitivity of the chambers was measured to be of the order of 10(-9) C Gy(-1) mm3. No systematic changes in the absorbed dose to water calibration was observed for any of the chambers during the test period (sigma < 0.2%). Variations in chamber dose response with small changes in the polarizing voltage as well as sensitivity changes with accumulated absorbed dose were also investigated. Measurements showed that the LIC response varies by 0.15% per 1% change in applied voltage around 300 V. No significant change could be observed in the LIC sensitivity after a single absorbed dose of 15 kGy. The results indicate that the LIC can be made to serve as a calibration transfer instrument and a reference detector for absorbed dose to water determinations providing good precision and long-term reproducibility.

Comparison of two methods of therapy level calibration at 60Co gamma beams.

The accuracy and traceability of the calibration of radiotherapy dosimeters is of great concern to those involved in the delivery of radiotherapy. It has been proposed that calibration should be carried out directly in terms of absorbed dose to water, instead of using the conventional and widely applied quantity of air kerma. In this study, the faithfulness in disseminating standards of both air kerma and absorbed dose to water were evaluated, through comparison of both types of calibration for three types of commonly used radiotherapy dosimeters at 60Co gamma beams at a few secondary and primary standard dosimetry laboratories (SSDLs and PSDLs). A supplementary aim was to demonstrate the impact which the change in the method of calibration would have on clinical dose measurements at the reference point. Within the estimated uncertainties, both the air kerma and absorbed dose to water calibration factors obtained at different laboratories were regarded as consistent. As might be expected, between the SSDLs traceable to the same PSDL the observed differences were smaller (less than 0.5%) than between PSDLs or SSDLs traceable to different PSDLs (up to 1.5%). This can mainly be attributed to the reported differences between the primary standards. The calibration factors obtained by the two methods differed by up to about 1.5% depending on the primary standards involved and on the parameters of calculation used for 60Co gamma radiation. It is concluded that this discrepancy should be settled before the new method of calibration at 60Co gamma beams in terms of absorbed dose to water is taken into routine use.

Liquid ionization chambers for absorbed dose measurements in water at low dose rates and intermediate photon energies.

Two new liquid ionization chamber (LIC) designs, consisting of cylindrical and plane-parallel configurations, are presented. They are designed to be suitable for high-precision measurements of absorbed dose-to-water at dose rates and photon energies typical for LDR intermediate photon energy brachytherapy sources. The chambers have a sensitive liquid layer thickness of 1 mm and sensitive volumes of 7 mm3 (plane-parallel) and 20 mm3 (cylindrical). The liquids used as sensitive media in the chambers are either isooctane (C8H18), tetramethylsilane (Si(CH3)4) or mixtures of these two liquids in the approximate proportions 2 to 1. A chamber filled with such a liquid mixture and with a polarizing voltage of 300 V, provides a volume sensitivity of about 10(-9)C Gy(-1) mm(-3) for absorbed dose measurements in water in an x-ray radiation field with an effective photon energy of 120 keV. In the interval 30 to 140 keV, the relative change in sensitivity is less than +/- 2.5%. The leakage current of the chambers is low and stable, which implies that absorbed dose measurements can be done with good reproducibility at dose-rates as low as 50 microGy min-1 (sigma < 3%). The long-term calibration stability was tested for a set of five chambers over a period of more than 1 year. No systematic change in their sensitivity could be observed. The general recombination at a polarizing voltage of 300 V is less than 2% for dose-rates up to about 100 mGy min-1. The temperature dependence at room temperature is 0.5% per degree C. The response is almost independent of the direction of the radiation for the plane-parallel LIC.