Effects of Marginal Zn Excess and Thiamine Deficiency on Microglial N9 Cell Metabolism and Their Interactions with Septal SN56 Cholinergic Cells.

Mild thiamine deficiency aggravates Zn accumulation in cholinergic neurons. It leads to the augmentation of Zn toxicity by its interaction with the enzymes of energy metabolism. Within this study, we tested the effect of Zn on microglial cells cultivated in a thiamine-deficient medium, containing 0.003 mmol/L of thiamine vs. 0.009 mmol/L in a control medium. In such conditions, a subtoxic 0.10 mmol/L Zn concentration caused non-significant alterations in the survival and energy metabolism of N9 microglial cells. Both activities of the tricarboxylic acid cycle and the acetyl-CoA level were not decreased in these culture conditions. Amprolium augmented thiamine pyrophosphate deficits in N9 cells. This led to an increase in the intracellular accumulation of free Zn and partially aggravated its toxicity. There was differential sensitivity of neuronal and glial cells to thiamine-deficiency-Zn-evoked toxicity. The co-culture of neuronal SN56 with microglial N9 cells reduced the thiamine-deficiency-Zn-evoked inhibition of acetyl-CoA metabolism and restored the viability of the former. The differential sensitivity of SN56 and N9 cells to borderline thiamine deficiency combined with marginal Zn excess may result from the strong inhibition of pyruvate dehydrogenase in neuronal cells and no inhibition of this enzyme in the glial ones. Therefore, ThDP supplementation can make any brain cell more resistant to Zn excess.

Metabolic and Cellular Compartments of Acetyl-CoA in the Healthy and Diseased Brain.

The human brain is characterised by the most diverse morphological, metabolic and functional structure among all body tissues. This is due to the existence of diverse neurons secreting various neurotransmitters and mutually modulating their own activity through thousands of pre- and postsynaptic interconnections in each neuron. Astroglial, microglial and oligodendroglial cells and neurons reciprocally regulate the metabolism of key energy substrates, thereby exerting several neuroprotective, neurotoxic and regulatory effects on neuronal viability and neurotransmitter functions. Maintenance of the pool of mitochondrial acetyl-CoA derived from glycolytic glucose metabolism is a key factor for neuronal survival. Thus, acetyl-CoA is regarded as a direct energy precursor through the TCA cycle and respiratory chain, thereby affecting brain cell viability. It is also used for hundreds of acetylation reactions, including N-acetyl aspartate synthesis in neuronal mitochondria, acetylcholine synthesis in cholinergic neurons, as well as divergent acetylations of several proteins, peptides, histones and low-molecular-weight species in all cellular compartments. Therefore, acetyl-CoA should be considered as the central point of metabolism maintaining equilibrium between anabolic and catabolic pathways in the brain. This review presents data supporting this thesis.

Resveratrol Inhibits Metabolism and Affects Blood Platelet Function in Type 2 Diabetes.

Chronic hyperglycemia contributes to vascular complications in diabetes. Resveratrol exerts anti-diabetic and anti-platelet action. This study aimed to evaluate the effects of resveratrol on metabolism and the function of blood platelets under static and in in vitro flow conditions in patients with type 2 diabetes. Blood obtained from 8 healthy volunteers and 10 patients with type 2 diabetes was incubated with resveratrol and perfused over collagen-coated capillaries. Isolated blood platelets were incubated with resveratrol and activated by collagen to assess platelet function, metabolism, ATP release, TXA2 production, lipid peroxidation, and gluthatione content. In the type 2 diabetes group, plasma glucose and fructosamine concentrations were significantly higher than in the healthy group. In in vitro studies, collagen-induced thrombi formation in the blood of diabetic patients was 33% higher than in the healthy group. Resveratrol reduced thrombi by over 50% in the blood of healthy and diabetic patients. TXA2 production was 47% higher in diabetic platelets than in the healthy group. Resveratrol reduced TXA2 release by 38% in healthy platelets and by 79% in diabetic platelets. Resveratrol also reduced the activities of enzymes responsible for glycolysis and oxidative metabolism in the platelets of both groups. These data indicate that the resveratrol-induced inhibition of platelet metabolism and TXA2 release may lead to a reduction of platelet function and thrombus formation in patients with type 2 diabetes. Therefore, resveratrol may be beneficial to prevent vascular complications as a future complementary treatment in aspirin-resistant diabetic patients.

Protection of Cholinergic Neurons against Zinc Toxicity by Glial Cells in Thiamine-Deficient Media.

Brain pathologies evoked by thiamine deficiency can be aggravated by mild zinc excess. Cholinergic neurons are the most susceptible to such cytotoxic signals. Sub-toxic zinc excess aggravates the injury of neuronal SN56 cholinergic cells under mild thiamine deficiency. The excessive cell loss is caused by Zn interference with acetyl-CoA metabolism. The aim of this work was to investigate whether and how astroglial C6 cells alleviated the neurotoxicity of Zn to cultured SN56 cells in thiamine-deficient media. Low Zn concentrations did not affect astroglial C6 and primary glial cell viability in thiamine-deficient conditions. Additionally, parameters of energy metabolism were not significantly changed. Amprolium (a competitive inhibitor of thiamine uptake) augmented thiamine pyrophosphate deficits in cells, while co-treatment with Zn enhanced the toxic effect on acetyl-CoA metabolism. SN56 cholinergic neuronal cells were more susceptible to these combined insults than C6 and primary glial cells, which affected pyruvate dehydrogenase activity and the acetyl-CoA level. A co-culture of SN56 neurons with astroglial cells in thiamine-deficient medium eliminated Zn-evoked neuronal loss. These data indicate that astroglial cells protect neurons against Zn and thiamine deficiency neurotoxicity by preserving the acetyl-CoA level.

Aggravated effects of coexisting marginal thiamine deficits and zinc excess on SN56 neuronal cells.

Objectives: Zinc excitotoxicity and thiamine pyrophosphate deficiency (TD) are known pathogenic signals contributing to mechanism of different encephalopathies through inhibition of enzymes responsible for energy metabolism such as pyruvate dehydrogenase, aconitase or ketoglutarate dehydrogenase. The aim of this work was to investigate whether subclinical Zn excess and TD, frequent in aging brain, may combine yielding overt neuronal impairment.Results: Clonal SN56 cholinergic neuronal cells of septal origin were used as the model of brain cholinergic neurons, which are particularly susceptible to neurodegeneration in the course of Alzheimer's disease, hypoxia and other dementia-linked brain pathologies. Neither subtoxic concentration of Zn (0.10 mM) nor mild 20-25% TD deficits alone caused significant negative changes in cultured cholinergic neurons viability and their acetyl-CoA/acetylcholine metabolism. However, cells with mild TD accumulated Zn in excess, which impaired their energy metabolism causing a loss of neurons viability and their function as neurotransmitters. These negative effects of Zn were aggravated by amprolium which is an inhibitor of thiamine intracellular transport.Conclusion: Our data indicate that TD may amplify otherwise non-harmful border-line Zn excitotoxic signals yielding progress of neurodegeneration.

Protective effects of voltage-gated calcium channel antagonists against zinc toxicity in SN56 neuroblastoma cholinergic cells.

One of the pathological site effects in excitotoxic activation is Zn2+ overload to postsynaptic neurons. Such an effect is considered to be equivalent to the glutamate component of excitotoxicity. Excessive uptake of Zn2+ by active voltage-dependent transport systems in these neurons may lead to significant neurotoxicity. The aim of this study was to investigate whether and which antagonists of the voltage gated calcium channels (VGCC) might modify this Zn2+-induced neurotoxicity in neuronal cells. Our data demonstrates that depolarized SN56 neuronal cells may take up large amounts of Zn2+ and store these in cytoplasmic and mitochondrial sub-fractions. The mitochondrial Zn2+ excess suppressed pyruvate uptake and oxidation. Such suppression was caused by inhibition of pyruvate dehydrogenase complex, aconitase and NADP-isocitrate dehydrogenase activities, resulting in the yielding of acetyl-CoA and ATP shortages. Moreover, incoming Zn2+ increased both oxidized glutathione and malondialdehyde levels, known parameters of oxidative stress. In depolarized SN56 cells, nifedipine treatment (L-type VGCC antagonist) reduced Zn2+ uptake and oxidative stress. The treatment applied prevented the activities of PDHC, aconitase and NADP-IDH enzymes, and also yielded the maintenance of acetyl-CoA and ATP levels. Apart from suppression of oxidative stress, N- and P/Q-type VGCCs presented a similar, but weaker protective influence. In conclusion, our data shows that in the course of excitotoxity, impairment to calcium homeostasis is tightly linked with an excessive neuronal Zn2+ uptake. Hence, the VGCCs types L, N and P/Q share responsibility for neuronal Zn2+ overload followed by significant energy-dependent neurotoxicity. Moreover, Zn2+ affects the target tricarboxylic acid cycle enzymes, yields acetyl-CoA and energy deficits as well.

The Regulatory Effects of Acetyl-CoA Distribution in the Healthy and Diseased Brain.

Brain neurons, to support their neurotransmitter functions, require a several times higher supply of glucose than non-excitable cells. Pyruvate, the end product of glycolysis, through pyruvate dehydrogenase complex reaction, is a principal source of acetyl-CoA, which is a direct energy substrate in all brain cells. Several neurodegenerative conditions result in the inhibition of pyruvate dehydrogenase and decrease of acetyl-CoA synthesis in mitochondria. This attenuates metabolic flux through TCA in the mitochondria, yielding energy deficits and inhibition of diverse synthetic acetylation reactions in all neuronal sub-compartments. The acetyl-CoA concentrations in neuronal mitochondrial and cytoplasmic compartments are in the range of 10 and 7 µmol/L, respectively. They appear to be from 2 to 20 times lower than acetyl-CoA Km values for carnitine acetyltransferase, acetyl-CoA carboxylase, aspartate acetyltransferase, choline acetyltransferase, sphingosine kinase 1 acetyltransferase, acetyl-CoA hydrolase, and acetyl-CoA acetyltransferase, respectively. Therefore, alterations in acetyl-CoA levels alone may significantly change the rates of metabolic fluxes through multiple acetylation reactions in brain cells in different physiologic and pathologic conditions. Such substrate-dependent alterations in cytoplasmic, endoplasmic reticulum or nuclear acetylations may directly affect ACh synthesis, protein acetylations, and gene expression. Thereby, acetyl-CoA may regulate the functional and adaptative properties of neuronal and non-neuronal brain cells. The excitotoxicity-evoked intracellular zinc excess hits several intracellular targets, yielding the collapse of energy balance and impairment of the functional and structural integrity of postsynaptic cholinergic neurons. Acute disruption of brain energy homeostasis activates slow accumulation of amyloid-ß1-42 (Aß). Extra and intracellular oligomeric deposits of Aß affect diverse transporting and signaling pathways in neuronal cells. It may combine with multiple neurotoxic signals, aggravating their detrimental effects on neuronal cells. This review presents evidences that changes of intraneuronal levels and compartmentation of acetyl-CoA may contribute significantly to neurotoxic pathomechanisms of different neurodegenerative brain disorders.

Phenotype-Dependent Interactions between N-acetyl-L-Aspartate and Acetyl-CoA in Septal SN56 Cholinergic Cells Exposed to an Excess of Zinc.

Pyruvate dehydrogenase reaction utilizing glucose-derived pyruvate is an almost exclusive source of acetyl-CoA in different cell mitochondrial compartments of the brain. In neuronal mitochondria, the largest fraction of acetyl-CoA is utilized for energy production and the much smaller one for N-acetyl-L-aspartate (NAA) synthesis. Cholinergic neurons, unlike others, require additional amounts of acetyl-CoA for acetylcholine synthesis. Therefore, several neurotoxic signals, which inhibit pyruvate dehydrogenase, generate deeper shortages of acetyl-CoA and greater mortality of cholinergic neurons than noncholinergic ones. NAA is considered to be a marker of neuronal energy status in neuropathic brains. However, there is no data on putative differential fractional distribution of the acetyl-CoA pool between energy producing and NAA or acetylcholine synthesizing pathways in noncholinergic and cholinergic neurons, respectively. Therefore, the aim of this study was to investigate whether zinc-excess, a common excitotoxic signal, may evoke differential effects on the NAA metabolism in neuronal cells with low and high expression of the cholinergic phenotype. Differentiated SN56 neuronal cells, displaying a high activity of choline acetyltransferase and rates of acetylcholine synthesis, contained lower levels of acetyl-CoA and NAA, being more susceptible to ZnCl2 exposition that the nondifferentiated SN56 or differentiated dopaminergic SHSY5Y neuronal and astroglial C6 cells. Differentiated SN56 accumulated greater amounts of Zn2 + from extracellular space than the other ones, and displayed a stronger suppression of pyruvate dehydrogenase complex activity and acetyl-CoA, NAA, ATP, acetylcholine levels, and loss of viability. These data indicate that the acetyl-CoA synthesizing system in neurons constitutes functional unity with energy generating and NAA or acetylcholine pathways of its utilization, which are uniformly affected by neurotoxic conditions.

Early and Late Pathomechanisms in Alzheimer's Disease: From Zinc to Amyloid-ß Neurotoxicity.

There are several systemic and intracerebral pathologic conditions, which limit provision and utilization of energy precursor metabolites in neuronal cells. Energy deficits cause excessive depolarization of neuronal cells triggering glutamate-zinc evoked excitotoxic cascade. The intracellular zinc excess hits several intraneuronal targets yielding collapse of energy balance and impairment functional and structural impairments cholinergic neurons. Disturbances in metabolism of acetyl-CoA, which is a direct precursor for energy, acetylcholine, N-acetyl-L-aspartate and acetylated proteins synthesis, play an important role in these pathomechanisms. Disruption of brain homeostasis activates slow accumulation of amyloid-ß 1-42 , which extra and intracellular oligomeric deposits disrupt diverse transporting and signaling processes in all membrane structures of the cell. Both neurotoxic signals may combine aggravating detrimental effects on neuronal cell. Different neuroglial and neuronal cell types may display differential susceptibility to similar pathogenic insults depending on specific features of their energy and functional parameters. This review, basing on findings gained from cellular and animal models of Alzheimer's disease, discusses putative energy/acetyl-CoA dependent mechanism in early and late stages of neurodegeneration.

AßPP-Transgenic 2576 Mice Mimic Cell Type-Specific Aspects of Acetyl-CoA-Linked Metabolic Deficits in Alzheimer's Disease.

The pyruvate-derived acetyl-CoA is a principal direct precursor substrate for bulk energy synthesis in the brain. Deficits of pyruvate dehydrogenase in the neocortex are common features of Alzheimer's disease and other age-related encephalopathies in humans. Therefore, amyloid-ß overload in brains of diverse transgenic Alzheimer's disease model animals was investigated as one of neurotoxic compounds responsible for pyruvate dehydrogenase inhibition yielding deficits of cholinergic neurotransmission and cognitive functions. Brains of aged, 14-16-month-old Tg2576 mice contained 0.6 µmol/kg levels of amyloid-ß1 - 42. Activities of pyruvate dehydrogenase complex, choline acetyltransferase, and several enzymes of acetyl-CoA and energy metabolism were found to be unchanged in both forebrain mitochondria and synaptosomes of Tg2576 mice, indicating preservation of structural integrity at least in cholinergic neuronal cells. However, in transgenic brain synaptosomes, pyruvate utilization, mitochondrial levels, and cytoplasmic acetyl-CoA levels, as well as acetylcholine content and its quantal release, were all found to be decreased by 25-40% . On the contrary, activation of pyruvate utilization was detected and no alterations in acetyl-CoA content and citrate or α-ketoglutarate accumulation were observed in transgenic whole brain mitochondria. These data indicate that amyloid-ß evoked deficits in acetyl-CoA are confined to mitochondrial and cytoplasmic compartments of Tg2576 nerve terminals, becoming early primary signals paving the path for further stages of neurodegeneration. On the other hand, acetyl-CoA synthesis in mitochondrial compartments of glial cells seems to be activated despite amyloid-ß accumulated in transgenic brains.

Differential effects of lipopolysaccharide on energy metabolism in murine microglial N9 and cholinergic SN56 neuronal cells.

There are significant differences between acetyl-CoA and ATP levels, enzymes of acetyl-CoA metabolism, and toll-like receptor 4 contents in non-activated microglial N9 and non-differentiated cholinergic SN56 neuroblastoma cells. Exposition of N9 cells to lipopolysaccharide caused concentration-dependent several-fold increases of nitrogen oxide synthesis, accompanied by inhibition of pyruvate dehydrogenase complex, aconitase, and α-ketoglutarate dehydrogenase complex activities, and by nearly proportional depletion of acetyl-CoA, but by relatively smaller losses in ATP content and cell viability (about 5%). On the contrary, SN56 cells appeared to be insensitive to direct exposition to high concentration of lipopolysaccharide. However, exogenous nitric oxide resulted in marked inhibition pyruvate dehydrogenase and aconitase activities, depletion of acetyl-CoA, along with respective loss of SN56 cells viability. These data indicate that these two common neurodegenerative signals may differentially affect energy-acetyl-CoA metabolism in microglial and cholinergic neuronal cell compartments in the brain. Moreover, microglial cells appeared to be more resistant than neuronal cells to acetyl-CoA and ATP depletion evoked by these neurodegenerative conditions. Together, these data indicate that differential susceptibility of microglia and cholinergic neuronal cells to neurotoxic signals may result from differences in densities of toll-like receptors and degree of disequilibrium between acetyl-CoA provision in mitochondria and its utilization for energy production and acetylation reactions in each particular group of cells. There are significant differences between acetyl-CoA and ATP levels and enzymes of acetyl-CoA metabolism in non-activated microglial N9 and non-differentiated cholinergic SN56 neuroblastoma cells. Pathological stimulation of microglial toll-like receptors (TLRs) triggered excessive synthesis of microglia-derived nitric oxide (NO)/NOO radicals that endogenously inhibited pyruvate dehydrogenase complex (PDHC), aconitase, and α-ketoglutarate dehydrogenase complex. However, it caused none or small suppressions of acetyl-CoA and microglial viability, respectively. Microglia-derived NO inhibited same enzymes in cholinergic neuronal cells causing marked viability loss because of acetyl-CoA deficits evoked by its competitive consumption by energy producing and acetylcholine/N-acetyl-l-aspartate (NAA) synthesizing pathways.

Intracellular redistribution of acetyl-CoA, the pivotal point in differential susceptibility of cholinergic neurons and glial cells to neurodegenerative signals.

Intramitochondrial decarboxylation of glucose-derived pyruvate by PDHC (pyruvate dehydrogenase complex) is a principal source of acetyl-CoA, for mitochondrial energy production and cytoplasmic synthetic pathways in all types of brain cells. The inhibition of PDHC, ACO (aconitase) and KDHC (ketoglutarate dehydrogenase complex) activities by neurodegenerative signals such as aluminium, zinc, amyloid ß-peptide, excess nitric oxide (NO) or thiamine pyrophosphate deficits resulted in much deeper losses of viability, acetyl-CoA and ATP in differentiated cholinergic neuronal cells than in non-differentiated cholinergic, and cultured microglial or astroglial cell lines. In addition, in cholinergic cells, such conditions caused inhibition of ACh (acetylcholine) synthesis and its quantal release. Furthermore, cholinergic neuronal cells appeared to be resistant to high concentrations of LPS (lipopolysaccharide). In contrast, in microglial cells, low levels of LPS caused severalfold activation of NO, IL-6 (interleukin 6) and TNFα (tumour necrosis factor α) synthesis/release, accompanied by inhibition of PDHC, KDHC and ACO activities, and suppression of acetyl-CoA, but relatively small losses in their ATP contents and viability parameters. Compounds that protected these enzymes against inhibitory effects of neurotoxins alleviated acetyl-CoA and ATP deficits, thereby maintaining neuronal cell viability. These data indicate that preferential susceptibility of cholinergic neurons to neurodegenerative insults may result from competition for acetyl-CoA between mitochondrial energy-producing and cytoplasmic ACh-synthesizing pathways. Such a hypothesis is supported by the existence of highly significant correlations between mitochondrial/cytoplasmic acetyl-CoA levels and cell viability/transmitter functions respectively.

Effects of sodium metavanadate on in vitro neuroblastoma and red blood cells.

Toxicity of vanadium on cells is one of the less studied effects. This prompted us to study the structural effects induced on neuroblastoma and erythrocytes by vanadium (V) sodium metavanadate. This salt was incubated with mice cholinergic neuroblastoma cells and intact human erythrocytes. To learn whether metavanadate interacts with membrane lipid bilayers it was incubated with bilayers built-up of dimyristoylphosphatidylcholine (DMPC) and dimyristoylphosphatidylethanolamine (DMPE). These are phospholipid classes located in the outer and inner monolayers of the human erythrocyte membrane, respectively. Exposure of neuroblastoma cells to metavanadate showed significant decreases in cell viability as well as in cell number correlating with inhibition of aconitase activity. In scanning electron microscopy (SEM) and defocusing microscopy (DM) it was observed that induced on erythrocytes the formation of echinocytes. However, no effects were obtained when metavanadate was made to interact with DMPC and DMPE multibilayers and liposomes, assays performed by X-ray diffraction and differential scanning calorimetry (DSC), respectively. These results imply that the effects of metavanadate on erythrocytes are through interactions with proteins located in the membrane outer moiety, and could still involve other minor lipid components as well. Also, partly unsaturated lipids could interact differently the fully saturated chains in the model systems.

Effects of lead on cholinergic SN56 neuroblastoma cells.

Age-dependent accumulation of lead in brain has been implicated in the pathomechanisms of Alzheimer's disease. The aim of this work was to investigate whether cholinotoxic effects of lead may result from alterations in acetyl-CoA metabolism. One day exposure of differentiated SN56 cholinergic neuroblastoma cells to 0.5 micromol/L lead or 0.01 mmol/L amyloid-beta1-42, increased fraction of nonviable cells to about 2%. Suppression of choline acetyltransferase activity occurred only in the presence of fresh amyloid-beta1-42, whereas lead was ineffective. All agents in combination caused suppression of acetyl-CoA in cytoplasm and mitochondria down to 19% and 34% of controls, respectively. Inverse correlation was observed between whole cell acetyl-CoA level and fraction of nonviable cells at different combinations of lead and other neurotoxic compounds. It indicates that lead had no primary suppressive effect on cholinergic phenotype but, at least in part, exerted cytotoxic influence on cholinergic neurons through the decrease of their acetyl-CoA.

Effects of zinc on SN56 cholinergic neuroblastoma cells.

Zinc is a trace element necessary for proper development and function of brain cells. However, excessive accumulation of zinc exerts several cytotoxic effects in the brain. The aim of this work was to see whether cytotoxic effects of zinc are quantitatively correlated with changes in acetyl-CoA metabolism. The zinc levels up to 0.20 mmol/L caused concentration-dependent inhibition of pyruvate dehydrogenase (PDH) activity that correlated with the increase in trypan blue-positive fraction and the decrease in cultured cell number (r = 0.96, p = 0.0001). Chronic exposure of cells to 0.15 mmol/L zinc decreased choline acetyltransferase and aconitase activities, cytoplasmic acetyl-CoA and whole cell ATP level by 38%, 57%, 35%, and 62%, respectively but caused no change in mitochondrial acetyl-CoA level and activities of other enzymes of glycolytic and tricarboxylic acid cycle. dl-alpha-lipoamide when added simultaneously with zinc to cultured cells or their homogenates attenuated its chronic or acute suppressive effects. In homogenates of chronically Zn-treated cells, lipoamide overcame PDH but not aconitase inhibition. Presented data indicate that acute-transient elevation of zinc caused reversible inhibition of PDH, aconitase activities and acetyl-CoA metabolism, which when prolonged could lead to irreversible enzyme inactivation yielding decrease in cell viability and secondary suppression of their cholinergic phenotype.