Variation in placentophagy in golden snub-nosed monkeys (Rhinopithecus roxellana) reflects nutritional constraints.

Golden snub-nosed monkeys show inconsistent frequency of placentophagy between wild and captive populations, with almost all births in the wild but around half of the births in captivity accompanied by the female's consumption of placenta. This aligns with nutritional demands-driven placentophagy, as captive populations are generally under less nutritional constraints for breeding females than the wild population. Placentophagy is probably adaptive in the wild and under positive selection due to nutritional benefits to both mothers and infants.

Does diet or macronutrients intake drive the structure and function of gut microbiota?

Shift of ingestive behavior is an important strategy for animals to adapt to change of the environment. We knew that shifts in animal dietary habits lead to changes in the structure of the gut microbiota, but we are not sure about if changes in the composition and function of the gut microbiota respond to changes in the nutrient intake or food items. To investigate how animal feeding strategies affect nutrient intakes and thus alter the composition and digestion function of gut microbiota, we selected a group of wild primate group for the study. We quantified their diet and macronutrients intake in four seasons of a year, and instant fecal samples were analyzed by high-throughput sequencing of 16S rRNA and metagenomics. These results demonstrated that the main reason that causes seasonal shifts of gut microbiota is the macronutrient variation induced by seasonal dietary differences. Gut microbes can help to compensate for insufficient macronutrients intake of the host through microbial metabolic functions. This study contributes to a deeper understanding of the causes of seasonal variation in host-microbial variation in wild primates.

Automatic land-sea classification in a nearshore environment using satellite-based photon-counting LiDAR data.

The Ice, Cloud, and Land Elevation Satellite-2 (ICESat-2) can measure the global surface with unprecedented resolution. Accurate classification of land and sea data is the prerequisite for generating high-quality data products. Current land-sea classification methods rely on assisted data or manual participation, and the automation degree cannot meet the needs of massive data processing. Therefore, using the land-sea difference of photon-counting LiDAR data, an index called normalized photon rate-elevation ratio (NPRER) is designed. Inspired by this, an automatic land-sea classification method is proposed, and the results are obtained through preliminary classification, reclassification, and post-processing enhancement. The results in Cook Inlet, Alaska, show that NPRER can measure the probability of sea appearance in the nearshore environment. At the same time, the automatic classification method can achieve an overall accuracy of 97.98%. The changes in the coastal type, data collection time, and classification feature sets have little influence on this method. Therefore, the method provides a reliable technical scheme for improving the automation of land-sea classification of satellite-based photon-counting LiDAR data.

Pregnancy diagnosis and sex identification with urinary glycopatterns of two mammal species.

Glycome in urine could be promising biomarkers for detecting pregnancy diagnosis and sex noninvasively for animals, especially for rare species. We explore the applicability of grouping golden snub-nosed monkeys by sex or diagnosing pregnancy based on their urinary glycopatterns, which are determined via lectin microarray combining mass spectrometry analysis. Sprague-Dawley rats are used to verify whether this approach and whether the glycomic biomarkers can be generalized to other mammalian species. The results show that, for both species, lectin microarray combining mass spectrometry can distinguish individuals' pregnancy status and sex; significant differences are found in the types, amounts, and terminal modification of glycans between pregnant and non-pregnant females and between females and males. This indicates the approach could be generalized to other mammalian species to group sex and detect pregnancy, yet the glycopatterns appear to be species-specific and markers developed from one species may not be directly applicable to another.

Regional fauna-flora biodiversity and conservation strategy in China.

Evolutionary and historical development and current profiles are essential to generating a tangible conservation strategy. It is also critical to distinguish the regions with vigorous potential growth from those meeting evolutionary development bottlenecks and those whose development has been severely devastated. We used two sizeable national data repositories of terrestrial fauna and flora of China to approach the issues. The results indicate that the Southwest and Coastal regions have the most significant terrestrial faunal-floral biodiversity (TFFB). Thus, they should be prioritized in conservation for great potential promotions. Although there has been remarkable evolutionary development, the Central region has been severely devastated. A solution is to uphold a balanced association between social-economic development and TFFB sustainability. As for the Northeast and the western Northwest, there is no need to invest heavily in conservation measures. This study sheds light on exploring more practical conservation strategies regionally, nationally, and globally to achieve pragmatic goals.

Interface Engineering to Boost Thermal Safety of Microsized Silicon Anodes in Lithium-Ion Batteries.

Battery safety is vital to the application of lithium-ion batteries (LIBs), especially for high energy density cells applied in electric vehicles. As an anode material with high theoretical capacity and natural abundance, Si has received extensive attention for LIBs. However, it suffers from severe electrode pulverization during cycling due to large volume changes and an unstable solid electrolyte interphase (SEI), resulting in accelerated capacity fading and even safety hazards. Therefore, safe and long-term cycling of Si-based anodes, especially under high-temperature cycling, is highly challenging for state-of-the-art high-energy LIBs. The thermal behavior of SEI is crucial for a high safety battery as the decomposition of SEI is the first step in thermal runaway. Here, highly reversible and thermotolerant microsized Si anodes for safe LIBs are demonstrated. Comprehensive electrochemical/mechanical/thermochemical behaviors of the SEI are systematically investigated. The rational design of robust SEI endows the Si-based cells with long-term durability at elevated temperatures and superior thermal safety. This work paves the way for designing industrial-scale, low-cost, microsized Si anodes with applications in next-generation LIBs with high energy densities and high safety.

Specialized digestive adaptations within the hindgut of a colobine monkey.

In mammal herbivores, fiber digestion usually occurs predominantly in either the foregut or the hindgut. Reports of mechanisms showing synergistic function in both gut regions for the digestion of fiber and other nutrients in wild mammals are rare because it requires integrative study of anatomy, physiology, and gut microbiome. Colobine monkeys (Colobinae) are folivorous, with high-fiber foods fermented primarily in their foreguts. A few colobine species live in temperate regions, so obtaining energy from fiber during the winter is essential. However, the mechanisms enabling this remain largely unknown. We hypothesized that such species possess specialized mechanisms to enhance fiber digestion in the hindgut and studied microbial and morphological digestive adaptations of golden snub-nosed monkeys (GSMs), Rhinopithecus roxellana. which is a temperate forest colobine from central China that experiences high-thermal-energy demands while restricted to a fibrous, low-energy winter diet. We tested for synergistic foregut and hindgut fiber digestion using comparisons of morphology, microbiome composition and function, and digestive efficiency. We found that the GSM colon has a significantly greater volume than that of other foregut-fermenting colobines. The microbiomes of the foregut and hindgut differed significantly in composition and abundance. However, while digestive efficiency and the expression of microbial gene functions for fiber digestion were higher in the foregut than in the hindgut, both gut regions were dominated by microbial taxa producing enzymes to enable active digestion of complex carbohydrates. Our data suggest that both the GSM foregut and hindgut facilitate fiber digestion and that an enlarged colon is likely an adaptation to accommodate high throughput of fiber-rich food during winter.

Collateral Status and Clinical Outcomes after Mechanical Thrombectomy in Patients with Anterior Circulation Occlusion.

BACKGROUND: Successful mechanical thrombectomy (MT) requires reliable, noninvasive selection criteria. We aimed to investigate the association of collateral status and clinical outcomes after MT in patients with ischemic stroke due to anterior circulation occlusion. METHODS: 109 patients with poor collaterals and 110 aged, sex-matched patients with good collaterals were enrolled in the study. Collateral circulation was estimated by the CT angiography with a 0-3 scale. The collateral status was categorized as poor collaterals (scores 0-1) and good collaterals (scores 2-3). The reperfusion was assessed by the modified Treatment in Cerebral Infarction scale (mTICI, score 0/1/2a/2b/3). The clinical outcomes included the scores on the modified Rankin scale (mRS, ranging from 0 to 6) and death 90 days after mechanical thrombectomy. RESULTS: Patients with greater scores of collateral status were more likely to achieve successful reperfusion (mTICI 2b/3). Patients with good collaterals were significantly associated with a higher chance of achieving mRS of 0-1 at 90 days (adjusted ORs: 4.55; 95% CI: 3.17-7.24; and P < 0.001) and a lower risk of death at 90 days (adjusted ORs: 0.87; 95% CI: 4.0%-28.0%; and P = 0.012) compared to patients with poor collaterals. In subgroup analyses, patients with statin use seem to benefit more from the effect of collateral status on good mRS (≤2). CONCLUSION: Among patients with acute ischemic stroke caused by anterior circulation occlusion, better collateral status is associated with higher scores on mRS and lower mortality after mechanical thrombectomy. Statin use might have an interaction with the effect of collateral status.

Use of historical and contemporary distribution of mammals in China to inform conservation.

A systematic understanding of dynamic animal extinction trajectories for different regions in a nation like China is critically important to developing practical conservation strategies. We explored historical and contemporary changes in terrestrial mammalian diversity to determine how diversity in each of the 5 regions in China has changed over time and to examine the conservation potential of these regions. We used records from databases on Pleistocene mammalian fossils and historical distribution records (1175-2020) for Primates (as a case study) to reconstruct evolutionary and historical distribution trajectories of the 11 orders of terrestrial mammals and to predict their prospective survival based on the national conservation strategy applied. The results indicated that since the Pleistocene, 4-5 mammalian orders have been lost in the northeast, 3 in central China, 2 along the coast, and 1 in the northwest. In the southwest, all 11 orders were maintained. Contemporarily, the coast and southwest had the highest and second-highest species densities. The southwest region and southeastern sections of the northwest region were the most historically and contemporarily diverse areas, which suggests that they should be the first priority for protected area (PA) designation. The central and coastal areas should be secondarily prioritized. In these 2 regions, conservation should focus on human coexistence with nature. Less attention should be paid to the PA in the northeast and western northwest because in these areas ecosystems are depauperate and the climate is harsh. Conservation in these areas should focus principally on avoiding further human encroachment on natural areas. Article impact statement: Historical and contemporary patterns of extinction can be a basis for mammalian conservation strategies.

Uso de la Distribución Histórica y Contemporánea de los Mamíferos en China para Orientar a la Conservación Resumen El entendimiento sistemático de las trayectorias de extinción dinámica de los animales para diferentes regiones en un país como en China es de importancia crítica para poder desarrollar estrategias de conservación prácticas. Exploramos los cambios históricos y contemporáneos en la diversidad de mamíferos terrestres para determinar cómo ha cambiado con el tiempo la diversidad en cada una de las cinco regiones de China y para examinar el potencial de conservación de aquellas regiones. Usamos registros tomados de bases de datos con información sobre los fósiles de mamíferos del Pleistoceno y registros de la distribución histórica (1175 - 2020) de los primates (como estudio de caso) para reconstruir las trayectorias de distribución históricas y contemporáneas de los once órdenes de mamíferos terrestres presentes en China. También utilizamos esta información para predecir la supervivencia potencial de estos órdenes con base en la estrategia nacional de conservación aplicada. Los resultados indicaron que, desde el Pleistoceno, entre cuatro y cinco órdenes de mamíferos se han perdido en el noreste de China, tres en la zona central, dos a lo largo de la costa y uno en el noroeste. En el suroeste del país se han mantenido los once órdenes. Actualmente, la costa y el suroeste tienen la primera y segunda densidad más alta de especies. La región del suroeste y las secciones al sureste de la región del noroeste son las áreas con la mayor diversidad histórica y contemporánea, lo que sugiere que deberían ser de primera prioridad para la designación de áreas protegidas (AP). Las áreas de la costa y el centro deberían ser las de segunda prioridad por la misma razón. En estas dos últimas regiones, la conservación debería enfocarse en la coexistencia entre los humanos y la naturaleza. Se les debería prestar una menor atención a las AP en el noreste y en la zona oeste del noroeste porque en estas áreas los ecosistemas son paupérrimos y el clima es hostil. La conservación en estas áreas debería enfocarse principalmente en evitar más invasiones humanas dentro de las áreas naturales.

Precisely Tunable T-Nb2O5 Nanotubes via Atomic Layer Deposition for Fast-Charging Lithium-Ion Batteries.

The demand for fast-charging of lithium-ion batteries (LIBs) in modern electric transportation and wearable electronics is rapidly growing. However, commercially available graphite anodes still suffer from slow kinetics of lithium-ion diffusion and severe safety concerns of lithium plating when achieving the fast-charging goal. Here, it is demonstrated that the Li-ion diffusion kinetics of orthorhombic Nb2O5 nanotubes (T-Nb2O5 NTs) is enhanced by atomically precise manufacturing of nanoarchitectures. The controlled fabrication of T-Nb2O5 NTs with wall thicknesses from 24 to 43 nm is realized via atomic layer deposition (ALD) using electrospun polyacrylonitrile nanofibers as a sacrificing template. The wall thickness of T-Nb2O5 NTs can be precisely tuned by adjusting the number of ALD cycles. The relationship between the wall thicknesses and electrochemical performances is investigated in detail. The electrochemical kinetic analysis suggests that the lithium storage in T-Nb2O5 NTs is dominated by surface and intercalation pseudocapacitance. The morphology of T-Nb2O5 crystallites is found to have significant effects on the Li-ion insertion/extraction kinetics and the performance of the electrodes in LIBs. The resulting T-Nb2O5 NTs exhibit fast charge-storage kinetics and enable highly reversible insertion/extraction of Li ions without a phase change. This work may open up a new avenue for further development of intercalation-pseudocapacitive nanostructured materials for high-rate and ultrastable energy-storage devices.

Thermoregulating Separators Based on Phase-Change Materials for Safe Lithium-Ion Batteries.

Safety issues in lithium-ion batteries (LIBs) have aroused great interest owing to their wide applications, from miniaturized devices to large-scale storage plants. Separators are a vital component to ensure the safety of LIBs; they prevent direct electric contact between the cathode and anode while allowing ion transport. In this study, the first design is reported for a thermoregulating separator that responds to heat stimuli. The separator with a phase-change material (PCM) of paraffin wax encapsulated in hollow polyacrylonitrile nanofibers renders a wide range of enthalpy (0-135.3 J g-1 ), capable of alleviating the internal temperature rise of LIBs in a timely manner. Under abuse conditions, the generated heat in batteries stimulates the melting of the encapsulated PCM, which absorbs large amounts of heat without creating a significant rise in temperature. Experimental simulation of the inner short-circuit in prototype pouch cells through nail penetration demonstrates that the PCM-based separator can effectively suppress the temperature rise due to cell failure. Meanwhile, a cell penetrated by a nail promptly cools down to room temperature within 35 s, benefiting from the latent heat-storage of the unique PCM separator. The present design of separators featuring latent heat-storage provides effective strategies for overheat protection and enhanced safety of LIBs.

Sex differences in habitat use, positional behavior, and gaits of Golden Snub-Nosed Monkeys (Rhinopithecus roxellana) in the Qinling Mountains, Shaanxi, China.

Studies of positional behavior, gait, and habitat use are important for understanding how animals adapt to the challenges of their environment. In turn, this information is useful for advancing research on primate morphology, life history, and ecology. Data on eco-mechanical variables can be used to develop concrete conservation and management plans for understudied and threatened primate groups. The present study explores the positional behavior, gaits, and habitat use of male and female adult golden snub-nosed monkeys (Rhinopithecus roxellana), an endemic, endangered, and highly dimorphic species of central China. Using focal animal sampling and opportunistic videorecording in the Guanyinshan National Nature Reserve on the southern slopes of the Qinling Mountains, it was determined that gait parameters were largely the same between sexes. By contrast, habitat use and, to a lesser extent, positional behavior varied significantly between males and females. In general, males were more terrestrial than females. When they moved arboreally, males also used a greater proportion of horizontal and large substrates compared to females. Furthermore, males used more standing postures, forelimb suspensory positional behaviors, and quadrupedal walking. These data suggest that, when faced with the mechanical challenges of large body size, primates such as R. roxellana are more likely to respond by altering habitat use rather than positional behaviors or intrinsic kinematics and timing.

Architectural Engineering Achieves High-Performance Alloying Anodes for Lithium and Sodium Ion Batteries.

Tremendous efforts have been dedicated to the development of high-performance electrochemical energy storage devices. The development of lithium- and sodium-ion batteries (LIBs and SIBs) with high energy densities is urgently needed to meet the growing demands for portable electronic devices, electric vehicles, and large-scale smart grids. Anode materials with high theoretical capacities that are based on alloying storage mechanisms are at the forefront of research geared towards high-energy-density LIBs or SIBs. However, they often suffer from severe pulverization and rapid capacity decay due to their huge volume change upon cycling. So far, a wide variety of advanced materials and electrode structures are developed to improve the long-term cyclability of alloying-type materials. This review provides fundamentals of anti-pulverization and cutting-edge concepts that aim to achieve high-performance alloying anodes for LIBs/SIBs from the viewpoint of architectural engineering. The recent progress on the effective strategies of nanostructuring, incorporation of carbon, intermetallics design, and binder engineering is systematically summarized. After that, the relationship between architectural design and electrochemical performance as well as the related charge-storage mechanisms is discussed. Finally, challenges and perspectives of alloying-type anode materials for further development in LIB/SIB applications are proposed.

The geometry of resource constraint: An empirical study of the golden snub-nosed monkey.

Apposite conceptualization and measurement of resource variation is critical for understanding many issues in ecology, including ecological niches, persistence and distribution of populations, the structure of communities and population resilience to perturbations. We apply the nutritional geometry framework to conceptualize and quantify the responses of a temperate-living primate, the golden snub-nosed monkey Rhinopithecus roxellana to variation in resource quality and quantity and in nutrient requirements associated with seasonal environments. We present a geometric model distinguishing qualitative constraint, quantitative constraint and 'pseudo-constraint' whereby nutrient intakes resemble response to qualitative resource constraint but are in fact driven by variation in nutrient requirements. The model is applied to analyse nutrient intakes recorded in 164 full-day observations of monkeys from two populations, one wild and the other captive, across seasons. Additionally, we recorded the diet of a single animal over 32 consecutive days in the wild. Despite considerable differences in available resources, the captive and wild populations showed marked similarities in nutrient intakes, including indistinguishable amounts and ratios of ingested macronutrients during summer and autumn and strong year-round maintenance of protein compared to seasonally variable fat and carbohydrate intakes. These similarities suggest homeostatically regulated nutritional targets and provide reference points to identify factors driving population differences in macronutrient intake in winter and spring. Our framework enabled us to distinguish examples of quantitative, qualitative and 'pseudo-constraint'. We suggest that this approach can increase the resolution at which resource constraint is conceptualized and measured in ecological studies.

Male social rank and food competition in a primate multi-level society.

OBJECTIVES: Social animals often have dominance hierarchies, with high rank conferring preferential access to resources. In primates, competition among males is often assumed to occur predominantly over reproductive opportunities. However, competition for food may occur during food shortages, such as in temperate species during winter. Higher-ranked males may thus gain preferential access to high-profitability food, which would enable them to spend longer engaged in activities other than feeding. MATERIALS AND METHODS: We performed a field experiment with a breeding band of golden snub-nosed monkeys, a species that lives in a multi-level society in high-altitude forests in central China. We provisioned monkey's high-profitability food during winter when natural foods are limited, and then recorded the times individual adult males spent engaged in different behaviors. RESULTS: Higher-ranking males spent less time feeding overall and fed on provisioned foods at a higher rate than lower-ranking males. Higher-ranking males therefore had more time to spend on alternative behaviors. We found no significant difference according to rank in times spent moving or resting. However, high-ranking males spend significantly longer on affiliative behaviors with other members of their social sub-units, especially grooming and being groomed, behaviors known to promote social cohesion in primates. DISCUSSION: We show that preferential access to high-profitability foods likely relaxes time-budget constraints to higher-ranking males. High-ranking males thus spend more time on non-feeding activities, especially grooming, which may enhance social cohesion within their social sub-unit. We discuss the potential direct and indirect benefits to high-ranking males associated with preferential access to high-value food during winter.

Automatic Identification of Individual Primates with Deep Learning Techniques.

The difficulty of obtaining reliable individual identification of animals has limited researcher's ability to obtain quantitative data to address important ecological, behavioral, and conservation questions. Traditional marking methods placed animals at undue risk. Machine learning approaches for identifying species through analysis of animal images has been proved to be successful. But for many questions, there needs a tool to identify not only species but also individuals. Here, we introduce a system developed specifically for automated face detection and individual identification with deep learning methods using both videos and still-framed images that can be reliably used for multiple species. The system was trained and tested with a dataset containing 102,399 images of 1,040 individuals across 41 primate species whose individual identity was known and 6,562 images of 91 individuals across four carnivore species. For primates, the system correctly identified individuals 94.1% of the time and could process 31 facial images per second.

Seasonal Variation and Sexual Dimorphism of the Microbiota in Wild Blue Sheep (Pseudois nayaur).

Microbiota of the wild blue sheep (Pseudois nayaur) presents a seasonal variation due to different dietary selection and feeding strategies from different ecological niches chosen by different sex in summer. To address those issues, we analyzed the variation of gut microbiota based on the material from the feces, with 16S rRNA and meta-genome aimed to explore seasonal and gender differences. The results indicate that seasonal dietary changes and gender differentiation, as expected, cause the variation in sheep's gut microbiota structure. The variation of the former is more significant than the latter. Dominant Firmicutes exists a significantly higher abundance in summer than that in winter. Subordinate Bacteroides expresses no seasonal difference between the two seasons. Compared with the winter group, the summer group is featured by abundant enzymes digesting cellulose and generating short-chain fatty acids (SCFAs), such as beta-glucosidase (EC: 3.2.1.21) for cellulose digestion, and butyrate kinase (EC:2.7.2.7) in butyrate metabolism, implying that the changes of the composition in intestinal flora allow the sheep to adapt to the seasonalized dietary selection through alternated microbial functions to reach the goal of facilitating the efficiency of energy harvesting. The results also show that the blue sheep expresses a prominent sexual dimorphism in the components of gut microbiota, indicating that the two sexes have different adaptations to the dietary selection, and demands for physical and psychological purposes. Thus, this study provides an example of demonstrating the principles and regulations of natural selection and environmental adaptation.

Observation of mother-perpetrated infanticide in golden takins ( Budorcas taxicolor bedfordi).

Infanticide by unrelated individuals is widely reported in the animal kingdom; however, little is known about cases perpetrated by a parent, particularly the mother. This article reports on three cases of mother-initiated infanticide in Qinling golden takins ( Budorcas taxicolor bedfordi) recorded from video and camera images. Based on previous reports in other animals, we propose that the infanticide events observed in golden takins were related to the parental manipulation mechanism - i.e., killing an unhealthy infant to allow the mother to invest more care in potentially healthy offspring, and gain more fruitful reproductive opportunities. This appears to be an evolutionary-based selection strategy, whereby a species can prosper and succeed under the challenges of natural selection. However, further studies on both captive and wild populations are required to answer the various questions raised from our observations.

Macaques in China: Evolutionary dispersion and subsequent development.

Depicting a taxonomic group's evolutionary trajectory as a function of changes in the geographical landscape and its historical distribution is critical for constructing informed conservation strategies. Based on fossil sites from the Pliocene to the Holocene, and historical records since 1175 AD, we established macaques' dispersal pathways into and through China. These routes include internal pathways starting from the southeast corner of the Qinghai-Tibet Plateau and Mts. Hengduan in western China, and the routes through the estuaries of the three major rivers (Yangtze, Yellow, and Pearl). Our results indicate that macaques used the three rivers and avoided the higher elevation of the plateaus to promote their radiation. They occupied the whole mainland and islands in the Pleistocene and experienced shrunken distribution in the Holocene due to climate changes and human-induced activities. A prominent China-wide reduction occurred between 1817 and 1917; and a remarkable retraction from central China happened between 1918 and 2018 following further eco-social development and human expansion in central China, particularly since the second half of the last century. Starting in 1175 there was a restriction of range to higher altitudes, so that macaques have contracted their range to the west, and the Qinghai-Tibet Plateau and Mts. Hengduan have become an important sanctuary. We predict that if the current climate and human-induced changes are not reversed by decisive conservation actions, macaques in east and central China will likely be extinct in the near future.

Primates Can Be a Rallying Symbol to Promote Tropical Forest Restoration.

With 60% of all primate species now threatened with extinction and many species only persisting in small populations in forest fragments, conservation action is urgently needed. But what type of action? Here we argue that restoration of primate habitat will be an essential component of strategies aimed at conserving primates and preventing the extinctions that may occur before the end of the century and propose that primates can act as flagship species for restoration efforts. To do this we gathered a team of academics from around the world with experience in restoration so that we could provide examples of why primate restoration ecology is needed, outline how primates can act as flagship species for restoration efforts of tropical forest, review what little is known about how primate populations respond to restoration efforts, and make specific recommendations of the next steps needed to make restoration of primate populations successful. We set four priorities: (1) academics must effectively communicate both the value of primates and the need for restoration; (2) more research is needed on how primates contribute to forest restoration; (3) more effort must be put into Masters and PhD level training for tropical country nationals; and finally (4) more emphasis is needed to monitor the responses of regenerating forest and primate populations where restoration efforts are initiated. We are optimistic that populations of many threatened species can recover, and extinctions can be prevented, but only if concerted large-scale efforts are made soon and if these efforts include primate habitat restoration.