Post-vaccination serum cytokines levels correlate with breakthrough influenza infections.

Post-vaccination cytokine levels from 256 young adults who subsequently suffered breakthrough influenza infections were compared with matched controls. Modulation within the immune system is important for eliciting a protective response, and the optimal response differs according to vaccine formulation and delivery. For both inactivated influenza vaccine (IIV) and live attenuated influenza vaccines (LAIV) lower levels of IL-8 were observed in post-vaccination sera. Post-vaccination antibody levels were higher and IFN-γ levels were lower in IIV sera compared to LAIV sera. Subjects who suffered breakthrough infections after IIV vaccination had higher levels of sCD25 compared to the control group. There were differences in LAIV post-vaccination interleukin levels for subjects who subsequently suffered breakthrough infections, but these differences were masked in subjects who received concomitant vaccines. Wide variances, sex-based differences and confounders such as concomitant vaccines thwart the establishment of specific cytokine responses as a correlate of protection, but our results provide real world evidence that the status of the immune system following vaccination is important for successful vaccination and subsequent protection against disease.

Physiological Need for Calcium, Iron, and Folic Acid for Women of Various Subpopulations During Pregnancy and Beyond.

Women tend to supplement their diets with multivitamin/mineral (MVM) supplements more often than men, and reports indicate that more than 90% of pregnant women in the United States supplement their diets with prenatal MVMs. Given the widespread use of MVMs among women and given the increasing efforts to unveil the importance of phenotype-specific health determinants, it seems imperative to review what is known about variations in nutrient physiology among women from different ethnic and racial groups and at different reproductive stages of life. In this study, we embark on an assessment of the scientific evidence and knowledge gaps that impact the precise determination of nutrient levels (specifically calcium, iron, and folic acid) that confer benefits to various subpopulations of women in the United States.