Incorporation of Sea Spaghetti (Himanthalia elongata) in Low-Salt Beef Patties: Effect on Sensory Profile and Consumer Hedonic and Emotional Response.

Seaweed is a naturally rich source of nutrients and exhibits techno-functional properties that are under study for their potential as ingredients in meat products. However, seaweed is associated with a particular flavor profile, and optimization of the sensory profile should be conducted alongside technical performance. This study investigated the feasibility of the application of sea spaghetti (Himanthalia elongata) in the production of low-salt beef patties and recorded the associated sensory profile and consumer hedonic-emotional response. Eight beef patty formulations with varying salt (0-1%) and seaweed (0-5%) contents were subjected to quantitative descriptive analysis via a trained sensory panel (n = 8) and six the formulations were selected for consumer testing (liking, emotional associations, saltiness perception, and purchase intent) by a group of 105 Irish resident consumers. The trained panel results showed that the intensity of seaweed odor, flavor, and visual presence in burgers was negatively related to the intensity of beef odor and flavor and that seaweed addition (5%) significantly increased the saltiness perception of low-salt burgers. Burgers with 1% added seaweed, although perceived by consumers as less salty, could substitute NaCl in low-salt beef patties without deterioration of their liking among regular burger consumers. Consumers associated all seaweed-containing samples, especially those containing 1% of sea spaghetti, with being good, pleasant, satisfied, and warm. The higher inclusion of sea spaghetti (2.5%) led to significantly lower overall liking and reduced purchase intent, while consumers associated this formulation with emotions such as being more adventurous, aggressive, and wild. Consumers who rejected seaweed burgers had the highest level of food neophobia and avoided foods with additives. The results demonstrate that 1% sea spaghetti seaweed can be successfully incorporated into low-salt beef patties, resulting in hedonic and emotional benefits without significantly increasing the salt content.

Impact of sampling location and aging on the Longissimus thoracis et lumborum muscle proteome of dry-aged beef.

This study aimed to explore the differences in the proteome and molecular pathways between two sampling locations (external, internal) of bovine Longissimus thoracis et lumborum (LTL) muscles at 0, 21, and 28 days of dry-aging (i.e. 3, 24, and 31 days post-mortem). It further assessed the impact of post-mortem aging on the meat proteome changes and the biological processes at interplay. Proteins related to defence response to bacterium and regulation of viral entry into host cell were identified to be more abundant on the external location before dry-aging, which may be associated to the oxidative conditions and microbial activity to which post-mortem muscle is exposed during dressing, chilling, and/or quartering of the carcasses. This highlights the relevance of sampling from interior tissues when searching for meat quality biomarkers. As dry-aging progressed, the meat proteome and related biological processes changed differently between sampling locations; proteins related to cell-cell adhesion and ATP metabolic processes pathways were revealed in the external location at 21 and 28 days, respectively. On the other hand, the impact of aging on the proteome of the interior meat samples, evidenced that muscle contraction and structure together with energy metabolism were the major pathways driving dry-aging. Additionally, aging impacted other pathways in the interior tissues, such as regulation of calcium import, neutrophil activation, and regeneration. Overall, the differences in the proteome allowed discriminating the three dry-aging times, regardless of the sampling location. Several proteins were proposed for validation as robust biomarkers to monitor the aging process (tenderization) of dry-aged beef: TTN, GRM4, EEF1A1, LDB3, CILP2, TNNT3, GAPDH, SERPINI1, and OMD.

Molecular mechanisms contributing to the development of beef sensory texture and flavour traits and related biomarkers: Insights from early post-mortem muscle using label-free proteomics.

Beef sensory quality comprises a suite of traits, each of which manifests its ultimate phenotype through interaction of muscle physiology with environment, both in vivo and post-mortem. Understanding variability in meat quality remains a persistent challenge, but omics studies to uncover biological connections between natural variability in proteome and phenotype could provide validation for exploratory studies and offer new insights. Multivariate analysis of proteome and meat quality data from Longissimus thoracis et lumborum muscle samples taken early post-mortem from 34 Limousin-sired bulls was conducted. Using for the first-time label-free shotgun proteomics combined with liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry (LC-MS/MS), 85 proteins were found to be related with tenderness, chewiness, stringiness and flavour sensory traits. The putative biomarkers were classified in five interconnected biological pathways; i) muscle contraction, ii) energy metabolism, iii) heat shock proteins, iv) oxidative stress, v) regulation of cellular processes and binding. Among the proteins, PHKA1 and STBD1 correlated with all four traits, as did the GO biological process 'generation of precursor metabolites and energy'. Optimal regression models explained a high level (58-71%) of phenotypic variability with proteomic data for each quality trait. The results of this study propose several regression equations and biomarkers to explain the variability of multiple beef eating quality traits. Thanks to annotation and network analyses, they further suggest protein interactions and mechanisms underpinning the physiological processes regulating these key quality traits. SIGNIFICANCE: The proteomic profiles of animals with divergent quality profiles have been compared in numerous studies; however, a wide range of phenotypic variation is required to better understand the mechanisms underpinning the complex biological pathways correlated with beef quality and protein interactions. We used multivariate regression analyses and bioinformatics to analyse shotgun proteomics data to decipher the molecular signatures involved in beef texture and flavour variations with a focus on multiple quality traits. We developed multiple regression equations to explain beef texture and flavour. Additionally, potential candidate biomarkers correlated with multiple beef quality traits are suggested, which could have utility as indicators of beef overall sensory quality. This study explained the biological process responsible for determining key quality traits such as tenderness, chewiness, stringiness, and flavour in beef, which will provide support for future beef proteomics studies.

Addressing Clean Label Trends in Commercial Meat Processing: Strategies, Challenges and Insights from Consumer Perspectives.

BACKGROUND: The concept of a clean label is difficult to define, even in common language, as the interpretation of what a "clean" food is differs from one person to another and from one organisation to another. The lack of a unique definition and regulations of what the term "clean" means, along with the growing consumer demand for more "natural" and healthier foods, is posing new challenges for manufacturers and ingredient producers. The meat industry, in particular, has been affected by this new movement owing to negative attitudes and feelings consumers associate with consuming processed meat products. Scope and approach: The review scope is to describe attributes and associations around the "clean" label term by analysing the most recent ingredients, additives and processing methods currently available for meat manufacturers. Their application in meat, plant-based alternatives and hybrid meat/plant products, current limitations and challenges presented in consumer perception, safety and potential impacts on product quality are also presented. KEY FINDINGS AND CONCLUSIONS: The availability of a growing number of "clean" label ingredients provides a new suite of approaches that are available for application by meat processors to help overcome some of the negative connotations associated with processed meat products and also support plant-based meat alternatives and hybrids.

Acceptable Inclusion Levels for Selected Brown and Red Irish Seaweed Species in Pork Sausages.

Commercially available Irish edible brown (Himanthalia elongata­sea spaghetti (SS), Alaria esculenta­Irish wakame (IW)) and red (Palmaria palmata­dulse (PP), Porphyra umbilicalis­nori) seaweeds were incorporated into pork sausages at 1%, 2.5%, and 5%. Proximate composition, salt, water-holding (WHC), cook loss, instrumental colour analysis, texture profile analysis (TPA), and sensory analysis were examined. Protein (13.14−15.60%), moisture (52.81−55.71%), and fat (18.79−20.02%) contents of fresh pork sausages were not influenced (p > 0.05) by seaweed type or addition level. The ash content of pork sausages containing PP, SS, and IW at 2.5% and 5%, and nori at 5%, were higher (p < 0.05) than the control sample. In comparison to the control, sausages containing nori, SS, and IW at 5% displayed higher (p < 0.05) WHC. Cook loss was unaffected (p > 0.05) by the addition of seaweeds into sausage formulations, compared to the control and within each seaweed. The addition of seaweeds into sausages had an impact on the surface colour (L* a* b*) and texture profile analysis (TPA) at different inclusion levels. Overall, hedonic sensory acceptability decreased (p < 0.05) in cooked sausages containing PP at 2.5% and 5%, and SS and IW at 5%.

An Assessment of Selected Nutritional, Bioactive, Thermal and Technological Properties of Brown and Red Irish Seaweed Species.

Irish edible brown (Himanthalia elongata-sea spaghetti, Alaria esculenta-Irish wakame) and red seaweeds (Palmaria palmata-dulse, Porphyra umbilicalis-nori) were assessed for nutritional (proximate composition; salt; pH; amino acid; mineral and dietary fibre contents); bioactive (total phenolic content (TPC) and in vitro antioxidant activity (DPPH and FRAP)); thermal (thermogravimetric analysis (TGA)); and technological (water holding capacity (WHC), oil holding capacity (OHC) and swelling capacity (SC)) properties. Red seaweeds had higher (p < 0.05) protein levels, whereas brown seaweeds possessed higher (p < 0.05) moisture, ash, insoluble and total dietary fibre contents. Nori had the lowest (p < 0.05) salt level. Seaweed fat levels ranged from 1 to 2% DW. Aspartic and glutamic acids were the most abundant amino acids. The total amino acid (TAA) content ranged from 4.44 to 31.80%. Seaweeds contained numerous macro (e.g., Na) and trace minerals. The TPC, DPPH and FRAP activities followed the order: sea spaghetti ≥ nori > Irish wakame > dulse (p < 0.05). TGA indicated maximum weight loss at 250 °C. Dulse had the lowest (p < 0.05) WHC and SC properties. Dulse and nori had higher (p < 0.05) OHC than the brown seaweeds. Results demonstrate the potential of seaweeds as functional food product ingredients.

A Proteomic Study for the Discovery of Beef Tenderness Biomarkers and Prediction of Warner-Bratzler Shear Force Measured on Longissimus thoracis Muscles of Young Limousin-Sired Bulls.

Beef tenderness is of central importance in determining consumers' overall liking. To better understand the underlying mechanisms of tenderness and be able to predict it, this study aimed to apply a proteomics approach on the Longissimus thoracis (LT) muscle of young Limousin-sired bulls to identify candidate protein biomarkers. A total of 34 proteins showed differential abundance between the tender and tough groups. These proteins belong to biological pathways related to muscle structure, energy metabolism, heat shock proteins, response to oxidative stress, and apoptosis. Twenty-three putative protein biomarkers or their isoforms had previously been identified as beef tenderness biomarkers, while eleven were novel. Using regression analysis to predict shear force values, MYOZ3 (Myozenin 3), BIN1 (Bridging Integrator-1), and OGN (Mimecan) were the major proteins retained in the regression model, together explaining 79% of the variability. The results of this study confirmed the existing knowledge but also offered new insights enriching the previous biomarkers of tenderness proposed for Longissimus muscle.

The influence of the interaction of sous-vide cooking time and papain concentration on tenderness and technological characteristics of meat products.

The food industry has been slow in harnessing technological developments to expand opportunities and benefit the community. One such opportunity is in the application of proteolytic enzymes to the development of softer-textured meat products that require reduced mastication force, for those with impaired dentition, and reduced strength including older adults. Proteolytic enzymes haven't been fully explored for their potential in this area. Here a response surface methodology (RSM) was applied to model the interactive effects of sous-vide and papain application on texture, color, and cooking loss of meat. An innovative meat product formulation with a reduced toughness (120 min cooking sous-vide and 0.01 mg papain/100 g) was optimized and the technological performance of the formulation was validated. Bias values of the optimized model were in the range of 0.97 to 1.06, while accuracy factors for shear force values, chewiness, TPA hardness, cooking loss, color parameters ranged from 1.00 and 1.06, both of which metrics indicated the reliability of the resultant models.

Shotgun proteomics for the preliminary identification of biomarkers of beef sensory tenderness, juiciness and chewiness from plasma and muscle of young Limousin-sired bulls.

Label free shotgun proteomics was used to analyse plasma and Longissimus muscle biopsies of Limousin-sired bulls, classified as 5 high-quality and 5 low-quality meat based on sensory texture traits (tenderness, juiciness and chewiness). A total of 31 putative protein biomarkers (16 in plasma and 15 in muscle) differed significantly in abundance between the two quality groups. The proteins were associated with muscle structure, energy metabolism, heat shock proteins, oxidative stress and proteolysis related pathways. Among them, B2M, AHSG, APOA4 and HP-20 (plasma), PFKM, MYH2, PTER, GSTM1 and MYPN (muscle) were good predictors of the three texture quality traits. Further, significant correlations were identified for FETUB, SERPINA7, ASL, TREH, HP, HP-25, AZGP1, APCS and SYT15, which are novel biomarkers from plasma that warrant further evaluation. This study is a significant step forward in elucidating proteomic profiles in bovine bio-fluids and muscle tissue, which may ultimately provide opportunities to processors for early assessment of beef sensory quality.

Prediction of Warner-Bratzler shear force, intramuscular fat, drip-loss and cook-loss in beef via Raman spectroscopy and chemometrics.

Rapid prediction of beef quality remains a challenge for meat processors. This study evaluated the potential of Raman spectroscopy followed by chemometrics for prediction of Warner-Bratzler shear force (WBSF), intramuscular fat (IMF), ultimate pH, drip-loss and cook-loss. PLS regression models were developed based on spectra recorded on frozen-thawed day 2 longissimus thoracis et lumborum muscle and validated using test sets randomly selected 3 times. With the exception of ultimate pH, models presented notable performance in calibration (R2 ranging from 0.5 to 0.9; low RMSEC) and, despite variability in the results, promising predictive ability: WBSF (RMSEP ranging from 4.6 to 9 N), IMF (RMSEP ranging from 0.9 to 1.1%), drip-loss (RMSEP ranging from 1 to 1.3%) and cook-loss (RMSEP ranging from 1.5 to 2.9%). Furthermore, the loading values indicated that the physicochemical variation of the meat influenced the models. Overall, results indicated that Raman spectroscopy is a promising technique for routine quality assessments of IMF and drip-loss, which, with further development and improvement of its accuracy could become a reliable tool for the beef industry.

Optimization of textural and technological parameters using response surface methodology for the development of beef products for older consumers.

Red meat has a tougher texture compared with many other food products, therefore consumption is often reduced among older adults. Acidic treatments had a positive effect on WBSF values (reduced the WBSF values from 23.35 N for control to 14.83 N), and texture parameters and a combination with apple fiber and rice starch may improve the health profile of a meat product with benefits for consumers, particularly for older population. A novel meat product with a softer texture (apple fiber 0.15%, rice starch 0.30% and citric acid 0.16 M) was optimized and successfully validated in this study. The results obtained for the objective measurements of tenderness were confirmed by consumers' tenderness results (p < .05) moreover texture-optimized beef samples were found to be more acceptable by older consumers compared with control. Meat processors have an important role in increasing the availability of suitable meat products for older consumers, by developing products that will meet their nutritional and textural needs. In this study, a novel meat product with a softer texture was developed, successfully validated and the product was found to be acceptable by older consumers. Meat processors could consider using rice starch, apple fiber, and citric acid as feasible alternative to traditional ingredients used for beef injection, in order to obtain a softer product, that appeal to older consumers with difficulties in mastication.

Investigating the use of visible and near infrared spectroscopy to predict sensory and texture attributes of beef M. longissimus thoracis et lumborum.

The aim of this study was to calibrate chemometric models to predict beef M. longissimus thoracis et lumborum (LTL) sensory and textural values using visible-near infrared (VISNIR) spectroscopy. Spectra were collected on the cut surface of LTL steaks both on-line and off-line. Cooked LTL steaks were analysed by a trained beef sensory panel as well as undergoing WBSF analysis. The best coefficients of determination of cross validation (R2CV) in the current study were for textural traits (WBSF = 0.22; stringiness = 0.22; crumbly texture = 0.41: all 3 models calibrated using 48 h post-mortem spectra), and some sensory flavour traits (fatty mouthfeel = 0.23; fatty after-effect = 0.28: both calibrated using 49 h post-mortem spectra). The results of this experiment indicate that VISNIR spectroscopy has potential to predict a range of sensory traits (particularly textural traits) with an acceptable level of accuracy at specific post-mortem times.

Effect of salt reduction and inclusion of 1% edible seaweeds on the chemical, sensory and volatile component profile of reformulated frankfurters.

The optimization of processed meats through salt replacement using edible seaweeds may reduce the risk of chronic disease through reduction in dietary sodium. We investigated the impact of the inclusion of four selected seaweeds (1% w/w) in reformulated frankfurters in which salt addition and pork fat content was reduced by 50% and 21%, respectively, and where pork loin (longissimus dorsi muscle) was increased by 6%, compared to a Control. Two different types of red (Porphyra umbilicalis and Palmaria palmata) and brown (Himanthalia elongata and Undaria pinnatifida) edible seaweeds were evaluated. The reformulated frankfurters containing added seaweed were lower in ash, higher in moisture, protein and darker in colour and had altered textural properties in comparison to the Control; mainly less hard and less chewy. The volatile and sensory profiles of the reformulated frankfurters differed from the Control. However, the reformulated frankfurters with the inclusion of H.elongata were the most promising, although further work is required to optimise the formulation.

Online Prediction of Physico-Chemical Quality Attributes of Beef Using Visible-Near-Infrared Spectroscopy and Chemometrics.

The potential of visible-near-infrared (Vis-NIR) spectroscopy to predict physico-chemical quality traits in 368 samples of bovine musculus longissimus thoracis et lumborum (LTL) was evaluated. A fibre-optic probe was applied on the exposed surface of the bovine carcass for the collection of spectra, including the neck and rump (1 h and 2 h post-mortem and after quartering, i.e., 24 h and 25 h post-mortem) and the boned-out LTL muscle (48 h and 49 h post-mortem). In parallel, reference analysis for physico-chemical parameters of beef quality including ultimate pH, colour (L, a*, b*), cook loss and drip loss was conducted using standard laboratory methods. Partial least-squares (PLS) regression models were used to correlate the spectral information with reference quality parameters of beef muscle. Different mathematical pre-treatments and their combinations were applied to improve the model accuracy, which was evaluated on the basis of the coefficient of determination of calibration (R2C) and cross-validation (R2CV) and root-mean-square error of calibration (RMSEC) and cross-validation (RMSECV). Reliable cross-validation models were achieved for ultimate pH (R2CV: 0.91 (quartering, 24 h) and R2CV: 0.96 (LTL muscle, 48 h)) and drip loss (R2CV: 0.82 (quartering, 24 h) and R2CV: 0.99 (LTL muscle, 48 h)) with lower RMSECV values. The results show the potential of Vis-NIR spectroscopy for online prediction of certain quality parameters of beef over different time periods.

Effect of Breed and Gender on Meat Quality of M. longissimus thoracis et lumborum Muscle from Crossbred Beef Bulls and Steers.

The objective of this study was to determine whether sire breed and/or castration had an effect on meat quality of M. longissimus thoracis et lumborum (LTL) muscle from crossbred bulls and steers and to investigate the relationship amongst the traits examined. Warner-Bratzler shear force (WBSF), intramuscular fat (IMF)%, cook-loss%, drip-loss%, colour (L*, a*, b*) and ultimate pH (upH) were determined in the LTL muscle from eight beef sire breeds representative of the Irish herd (Aberdeen Angus, Belgian Blue, Charolais, Hereford, Limousin, Parthenaise, Salers and Simmental). The results indicate that IMF%, cook-loss% and drip-loss% were associated with breed (p < 0.05); while WBSF, IMF% and cook-loss% differ between genders (p < 0.05). Steer LTL had a greater IMF% and exhibited reduced WBSF and cook-loss% in comparison to the bull LTL (p < 0.05). This study provides greater insight into how quality traits in beef are influenced by breed and gender and will support the industry to produce beef with consistent eating quality.

Optimising the acceptability of reduced-salt ham with flavourings using a mixture design.

The objective of this study was to optimise the acceptability of reduced-salt cooked ham containing a mixture of glycine and yeast extract as flavourings by using response surface methodology. Twelve different formulations were prepared with varying levels of salt and the two flavourings, according to a mixture design. The sensory properties were assessed along with the instrumental texture and colour. A multiple factor analysis showed that higher scores in tenderness, saltiness and juiciness were positively correlated, whereas instrumental hardness and chewiness were negatively correlated with acceptability. Response surface plots and optimisation software allowed the inference of two optimised formulations: HO1 with 1.3% salt and yeast extract content of 0.33%; and HO2 with 1.27% salt, 0.2% yeast extract and 0.16% glycine. A panel of 100 consumers found no significant differences in overall acceptability when both were compared to a control (1.63% salt). These results show it is possible to manufacture consumer accepted cooked ham with up to 20% salt reduction.

Sensory optimisation of salt-reduced corned beef for different consumer segments.

The study objectives were to determine assessors' (n = 256) preference for corned beef, produced with sequential reductions in NaCl concentrations and to determine if preference was affected by assessor age. The use of a salt replacer such as potassium lactate was also assessed. The youngest age cohort disliked samples containing the highest level of NaCl, whereas the oldest age cohort did not detect differences between samples. The most negatively perceived sample was the control, suggesting that NaCl levels added to commercial corned beef are currently too high for consumer acceptance. All age cohorts, with the exception of the 65-74 age cohort, accepted corned beef samples possessing NaCl levels closest to the FSAI target (1.63 g/100 g). No major sensory differences were noted between samples with and without potassium lactate by the ≥65 age cohort. Potassium lactate may be added to corned beef without affecting sensory attributes, whilst enhancing nutritional content. Assessors of varying age groups have differing preferences for certain NaCl levels and salt replacers.

RNA-Seq of Liver From Pigs Divergent in Feed Efficiency Highlights Shifts in Macronutrient Metabolism, Hepatic Growth and Immune Response.

Liver is a metabolically complex organ that influences nutrient partitioning and potentially modulates the efficiency of converting energy acquired from macronutrients ingestion into a muscle and/or adipose tissue (referred to as feed efficiency, FE). The objective of this study was to sequence the hepatic tissue transcriptome of closely related but differently feed efficient pigs (n = 16) and identify relevant biological processes that underpin the differences in liver phenotype between FE groups. Liver weight did not significantly differ between the FE groups, however, blood parameters showed that total protein, glucose, cholesterol and percentage of lymphocytes were significantly greater in high-FE pigs. Ontology analysis revealed carbohydrate, lipid and protein metabolism to be significantly enriched with differentially expressed genes. In particular, high-FE pigs exhibited gene expression patterns suggesting improved absorption of carbohydrates and cholesterol as well as enhanced reverse cholesterol transport. Furthermore, the inferred decrease in bile acid synthesis in high-FE pigs may contribute to the observed greater levels of serum glucose, which can be then delivered to cells and utilized for growth and maintenance. Gene ontology analysis also suggested that livers of more efficient pigs may be characterized by higher protein turnover and increased epithelial cell differentiation, whereby an enhanced quantity of invariant natural killer T-cells and viability of natural killer cells could induce a quicker and more effective hepatic response to inflammatory stimuli. Our findings suggest that this prompt hepatic response to inflammation in high-FE group may contribute to the more efficient utilization of nutrients for growth in these animals.

Assessment of RNAlater® as a Potential Method to Preserve Bovine Muscle Proteins Compared with Dry Ice in a Proteomic Study.

RNAlater® is regarded as a potential preservation method for proteins, while its effect on bovine muscle proteins has rarely been evaluated. Bovine muscle protein samples (n = 12) collected from three tender (Warner⁻Bratzler shear force: 30.02⁻31.74 N) and three tough (Warner⁻Bratzler shear force: 54.12⁻66.25 N) Longissimus thoracis et lumborum (LTL) samples, preserved using two different sampling preservation methods (RNAlater® and dry ice), at two post mortem time points (day 0 and day 14), were characterized using one-dimensional electrophoresis. Fourteen bands with molecular weights ranging from 15 to 250 kDa were verified, both in the dry ice and RNAlater® storage groups, at each time point, using image analysis. A shift from high to low molecular weight fragments, between day 0 and day 14, indicated proteolysis of the muscle proteins during post mortem storage. Liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry (LC-MS/MS) analyses and database searching resulted in the identification of 10 proteins in four bands. Protein profiles of muscle preserved in RNAlater® were similar to those of muscle frozen on dry ice storage, both at day 0 and day 14. The results demonstrate that RNAlater® could be a simple and efficient way to preserve bovine muscle proteins for bovine muscle proteomic studies.

Transcriptome analysis of adipose tissue from pigs divergent in feed efficiency reveals alteration in gene networks related to adipose growth, lipid metabolism, extracellular matrix, and immune response.

Adipose tissue is hypothesized to play a vital role in regulation of feed efficiency (FE; efficiency in converting energy and nutrients into tissue), of which improvement will simultaneously reduce environmental impact and feed cost per pig. The objective of the present study was to sequence the subcutaneous adipose tissue transcriptome in FE-divergent pigs (n = 16) and identify relevant biological processes underpinning observed differences in FE. We previously demonstrated that high-FE pigs were associated with lower fatness when compared to their counterparts. Here, ontology analysis of a total of 209 annotated genes that were differentially expressed at a p < 0.01 revealed establishment of a dense extracellular matrix and inhibition of capillary formation as one underlying mechanism to achieve suppressed adipogenesis. Moreover, mechanisms ensuring an efficient utilization of lipids in high-FE pigs might be orchestrated by upstream regulators including CEBPA and EGF. Consequently, high-FE adipose tissue could exhibit more efficient cholesterol disposal, whilst inhibition of inflammatory and immune response in high-FE pigs may be an indicator of an optimally functioning adipose tissue. Taken together, adipose tissue growth, extracellular matrix formation, lipid metabolism and inflammatory and immune response are key biological events underpinning the differences in FE. Further investigations focusing on elucidating these processes would assist the animal production industry in optimizing strategies related to nutrient utilization and product quality.