Molecular features, antioxidant potential, and immunological expression assessment of thioredoxin-like protein 1 (TXNL1) in yellowtail clownfish (Amphiprion clarkii).

Thioredoxin-like protein 1 (TXNL1) is a redox-active protein belonging to the thioredoxin family, which mainly controls the redox status of cells. The TXNL1 gene from Amphiprion clarkii (AcTXNL1) was obtained from a pre-established transcriptome database. The AcTXNL1 is encoded with 289 amino acids and is predominantly localized in the cytoplasm and nucleus. The TXN domain of AcTXNL1 comprises a34CGPC37 motif with redox-reactive thiol (SH-) groups. The spatial distribution pattern of AcTXNL1 mRNA was examined in different tissues, and the muscle was identified as the highest expressed tissue. AcTXNL1 mRNA levels in the blood and gills were significantly increased in response to different immunostimulants. In vitro antioxidant capacity of the recombinant AcTXNL1 protein (rACTXNL1) was evaluated using the ABTS free radical-scavenging activity assay, cupric ion reducing antioxidant capacity assay, turbidimetric disulfide reduction assay, and DNA nicking protection assay. The potent antioxidant activity of rAcTXNL1 exhibited a concentration-dependent manner in all assays. Furthermore, in the cellular environment, overexpression of AcTXNL1 increased cell viability under H2O2 stress and reduced nitric oxide (NO) production induced by lipopolysaccharides (LPS). Collectively, the experimental results revealed that AcTXNL1 is an antioxidant and immunologically important gene in A. clarkii.

Molecular mechanisms of the virulence and efficacy of a highly virulent Vibrio anguillarum strain and its formalin-inactivated vaccine in rainbow trout.

In this study, we have isolated four strains of Vibrio anguillarum, revealing that they share the same serotype of O1, biochemical characteristics and virulence factor genes. However, there were differences in haemolytic activity among the bacterial strains; a strain with lower pathogenicity showed γ-haemolytic activity, whereas other virulent strains showed α-haemolytic activity on blood agar and higher empA gene expression in RTG-2 cell line. The most virulent strain was V. anguillarum RTBHR from diseased masu salmon (Oncorhynchus masou), which resulted in mortality of 100% and 93.3% when injected intraperitoneally at concentrations of 9 × 105 and 6.3 × 105 colony-forming units/fish in rainbow trout (Oncorhynchus mykiss) and Coho salmon (Oncorhynchus kisutch), respectively. A formalin-inactivated vaccine of V. anguillarum RTBHR induced a protective and specific immunity in rainbow trout as the vaccinated fish exhibited low cumulative mortality in a challenge test and a high specific antibody response in enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay at 8 weeks post-vaccination. The produced antibody was bound to bacterial proteins of 30-37 kDa in size. This adaptive immune response was detected as early as day 1, with quantitative polymerase chain reaction analysis revealing the upregulated expression of genes encoding for TCRα, T-bet, mIgM and sIgM in rainbow trout. This suggested that the vaccine induced T (probably a more dominant Th1 response) and B cell responses. In conclusion, the vaccine successfully protected fish from V. anguillarum infection by eliciting cellular and humoral immune responses.

Efficacy of a recombinant M-like protein, SimA as a subunit vaccine candidate against Streptococcus parauberis infection in olive flounder, Paralichthys olivaceus.

Streptococcus parauberis, a gram-positive cocci, causes bacterial disease in farmed fish. The recent increase in S. parauberis infection in aquatic farms in South Korea has justified the importance of vaccine development for the prevention of this disease. In this study, we evaluated the effect of subunit vaccines prepared from recombinant M-like protein (SimA) and fibrinogen-binding protein (FBP) candidates with an aluminum hydroxide adjuvant against S. parauberis infection in olive flounder Paralichthys olivaceus. For the in vivo experiment, fish (average length, 7.18 cm; average weight, 3.5 g) were injected intraperitoneally with: phosphate buffer saline (PBS, group 1), PBS/aluminum hydroxide (group 2), FBP/aluminum hydroxide (group 3), SimA/aluminum hydroxide (group 4), and SimA/FBP/aluminum hydroxide (group 5). After 3 weeks, the fish in each group were boosted using PBS (group 1 and 2), FBP (group 3), SimA (group 4), and SimA/FBP (group 5) without adjuvant. We found that the relative percent survival of fish after S. parauberis exposure in group 2, 3, 4, and 5 was 6.25%, 18.75%, 50%, and 12.5%, respectively, whereas the mortality in groups 1 was 80%, respectively. We performed Western blot, ELISA, and quantitative real time RT-PCR (qRT-PCR) after vaccination to investigate the further efficacy of the vaccine. Western blot and ELISA of vaccinated fish serum confirmed the production of specific antibodies against SimA and FBP. Furthermore, results of qRT-PCR showed that recombinant protein SimA induced a remarkably specific-antibody response compared with that in FBP or control and increased the expression of various immune response-related genes including interleukin-8 (IL-8), toll-like receptor 2 (TLR2), tumor necrosis factor-α (TNF-α), CD4-1, and MHC II. Thus, these results indicate that SimA is a potent vaccine candidate for protection against S. parauberis infection.

Red sea bream interleukin (IL)-1ß and IL-8 expression, subcellular localization, and antiviral activity against red sea bream iridovirus (RSIV).

Interleukin-1 beta (IL-1ß) is transcribed by monocytes, macrophages, and dendritic cells in response to activation of toll-like receptors (TLRs) by pathogen-associated molecular patterns (PAMPs) or cytokine signalling and causes a rapid inflammatory response to infection. IL-8, also known as chemokine C-X-C motif ligand (CXCL)-8, is regulated by IL-1ß and affects the chemotaxis of macrophages and neutrophils upon pathogen infection. In healthy red sea bream, rsbIL-1ß is most highly distributed in the liver, and rsbIL-8 is most highly distributed in the head kidney. In response to RSIV infection, rsbIL-1ß and rsbIL-8 mRNA are significantly upregulated in the kidney and spleen. This may be because the primary infection targets of RSIV are the kidney and spleen. In the gills, both genes were significantly upregulated at 7 days after RSIV infection and may be accompanied by a cytokine storm. In the liver, both genes were significantly downregulated at most observation points, which may be because the immune cells such as macrophages and dendritic cells expressing rsbIL-1ß or rsbIL-8 migrated to other tissues because the degree of RSIV infection was relatively low. Using a GFP fusion protein, it was confirmed that rsbIL-1ß and rsbIL-8 were localized to the cytoplasm of Pagrus major fin (PMF) cells. RsbIL-1ß overexpression induced the expression of interferon gamma (IFN-γ), myxovirus-resistance protein (Mx) 1, IL-8, IL-10, TNF-α, and MyD88, while rsbIL-8 overexpression induced the expression of IFN-γ, Mx1, rsbIL-1ß and TNF-α. In addition, overexpression of both genes significantly reduced the genome copies of RSIV and significantly reduced the viral titers. Therefore, rsbIL-1ß and rsbIL-8 in red sea bream play an antiviral role against RSIV through their normal signalling.

Protective immunity induced by ankyrin repeat-containing protein-based DNA vaccine against rock bream iridovirus (RBIV) in rock bream (Oplegnathus fasciatus).

Rock bream iridovirus (RBIV) causes severe mass mortalities in rock bream (Oplegnathus fasciatus) and remains an unsolved problem in Korea aquaculture industry. In this study, we assessed the potential of ankyrin repeat (ANK)-containing proteins to induce protective immunity in RBIV-infected rock bream. Rock bream administered with ankyrin repeat-containing protein-based DNA vaccine (200 ng/fish) exhibited significant protection against at 4 and 8 weeks post vaccination to infected with 6.7 × 105 RBIV at 23°C; relative percent survival (RPS) of 60.04% and 40.1%, respectively. Furthermore, survivors from the first infection were strongly protected from RBIV (1.1 × 107) re-infection at 70 days post infection, as 100% RPS was observed and without clinical signs of RBIV diseases. Moreover, TLR3 (9.5-fold), TLR9 (5.2-fold), MyD88 (15.9-fold), Mx (55.5-fold), ISG15 (19.0-fold), PKR (24.2-fold), MHC class I (5.1-fold), perforin (6.5-fold), Fas (6.4-fold), Fas ligand (7.1-fold), caspase8 (5.0-fold), caspase9 (12.5-fold), and caspase3 (6.3-fold) responses were significantly elevated in the muscle (vaccine injection site) of ANK-based DNA vaccinated fish at 7 days post vaccination. However, inflammatory cytokines (IL1ß, IL8, and TNFα) were not enhanced in the vaccinated rock bream. Moreover, ANK gene may be a good candidate to detect RBIV infection or in revealing specific information to elucidate the pathogenic mechanisms underlying RBIV infection. In summary, ANK-based DNA vaccination in rock bream induced TLR- and IFN-mediated or apoptosis-related immune responses and suggest efficient preventive measures against RBIV.

Transcriptome analysis unveils survival strategies of Streptococcus parauberis against fish serum.

Streptococcus parauberis is an important bacterial fish pathogen that causes streptococcosis in a variety of fish species including the olive flounder. Despite its importance in the aquaculture industry, little is known about the survival strategy of S. parauberis in the host. Therefore, the objective of this study was to produce genome-wide transcriptome data and identify key factors for the survival of S. parauberis SPOF3K in its host. To this end, S. parauberis SPOF3K was incubated in olive flounder serum and nutrient-enriched media as a control. Although S. parauberis SPOF3K proliferated in both culture conditions, the transcriptomic patterns of the two groups were very different. Interestingly, the expression levels of genes responsible for the replication of an S. parauberis plasmid in the presence of olive flounder serum were higher than those in the absence of olive flounder serum, indicating that this plasmid may play an important role in the survival and proliferation of S. parauberis in the host. Several ATP-binding cassette transporters known to transport organic substrates (e.g., biotin and osmoprotectants) that are vital for bacterial survival in the host were significantly up-regulated in S. parauberis cultured in serum. In addition, groEL, dnaK operon, and members of the clp protease family, which are known to play important roles in response to various stressors, were up-regulated in S. parauberis incubated in serum, thus limiting damage and facilitating cellular recovery. Moreover, important virulence factors including the hyaluronic acid capsule (has operon), sortase A (srtA), C5a peptidase (scp), and peptidoglycan O-acetyltransferase (oatA) were significantly upregulated in S. paraubers in serum. These results indicate that S. paraubers can resist and evade the humoral immune responses of fish. The transcriptomic data obtained in this study provide a better understanding of the mode of action of S. parauberis in fish.

Functional characterization and gene expression profile of perforin-2 in starry flounder (Platichthys stellatus).

The membrane attack complex/perforin (MACPF) superfamily consists of multifunctional proteins that form pores on the membrane surface of microorganisms to induce their death and have various immune-related functions. PFN2 is a perforin-like protein with an MACPF domain, and humans with deficient PFN2 levels have increased susceptibility to bacterial infection, which can lead to fatal consequences for some patients. Therefore, in this study, we confirmed the antimicrobial function of PFN2 in starry flounder (Platichthys stellatus). The molecular properties were confirmed based on the verified amino acid sequence of PsPFN2. In addition, the expression characteristics of tissue-specific and pathogen-specific PsPFN2 mRNA were also confirmed. The recombinant protein was produced using Escherichia coli, and the antimicrobial activity was then confirmed. The coding sequence of PFN2 (PsPFN2) in P. stellatus consists of 710 residues. The MACPF domain was conserved throughout evolution, as shown by multiple sequence alignment and phylogenetic analysis. PsPFN2 mRNA is abundantly distributed in immune-related organs such as the spleen and gills of healthy starry flounder, and significant expression changes were confirmed after artificial infection by bacteria or viruses. We cloned the MACPF domain region of PFN2 to produce a recombinant protein (rPFN2) and confirmed its antibacterial effect against a wide range of bacterial species and the parasite (Miamiensis avidus).

The molecular characterization, expression analysis and antimicrobial activity of theromacin from Asian polychaeta (Perinereis linea).

Antimicrobial peptides (AMPs) are molecular factors in innate immunity and are believed to play a key role in invertebrate host defence. We identified theromacin (TM) from an Asian polychaeta, Perinereis linea, using de novo RNA-seq analysis. TM, a typical AMP of invertebrates, is a cysteine-rich AMP with five disulfide bonds consisting of ten cysteine residues. In gene expression analysis, TM genes were constantly upregulated after lipopolysaccharide (LPS) stimulation. In contrast, after peptidoglycan (PGN) stimulation, it was upregulated initially and downregulated after 12 h. We synthesized a peptide based on the macin AMP in the TM amino acid sequence. The synthetic peptide showed antibacterial activity against some Gram-positive and Gram-negative bacteria. Therefore, the AMPs of P. linea might have broad roles in host defence and exhibit different degrees of activity.

The correlations data between whether liposomes are coated or not and flatfish's (paralichthys olivaceus) Streptococcus parauberis antibody formation ability and survival rates.

Streptococcus parauberis is a known etiologic agent that causes damage leading to death in flatfish (paralichthys olivaceus). Liposomes were used to deliver streptococcal oral vaccines to the intestinal mucous membranes of paralichthys olivaceus. The liposomes were coated for stabilization, and stability was measured with high performance liquid chromatography (HPLC). The liposomes were stable until day nine and were orally administered to flatfish as a vaccine. The resultant antibody titers were analyzed. The titers resulting from the uncoated liposomes were highest two weeks after the oral administration, and those resulting from the coated liposomes were highest one week after boosting. In addition, the bacteria were subcutaneously injected to artificially infect flatfish and the survival rates and relative survival rates were analyzed. The coated liposomes were found to yield the highest survival rate.

Functional analysis and gene expression profiling of extracellular cathepsin Z in red sea bream, Pagrus major.

Cathepsin Z (CTSZ) is a lysosomal cysteine protease that is known to be involved in the maintenance of homeostasis and the biological mechanisms of immune cells. In this study, we have confirmed the tissue specific expression of the cathepsin Z (PmCTSZ) gene in Pagrus major, and confirmed its biological function after producing recombinant protein using Escherichia coli (E. coli). Multiple sequence alignment analysis revealed that the active site of the cysteine proteases and three N-glycosylation sites of the deduced protein sequence were highly conserved among all of the organisms. Phylogenetic analysis revealed that PmCTSZ was included in the clusters of CTSZ and the cysteine proteases of other bony fish and is most closely related to Japanese flounder CTSZ. PmCTSZ was distributed in all of the tissues from healthy red sea bream that were used in the experiment and was most abundantly found in the spleen and gill. Analysis of mRNA expression after bacterial (Edwardsiella piscicida: E. piscicida and Streptococcus iniae: S. iniae) or viral (red seabream iridovirus: RSIV) challenge showed significant gene expression regulation in immune-related tissues, but they maintained relatively normal levels of expression. We produced recombinant PmCTSZ (rPmCTSZ) using an E. coli expression system and confirmed the biological function of extracellular rPmCTSZ in vitro. We found that bacterial proliferation was significantly inhibited by rPmCTSZ, and the leukocytes of red sea bream also induced apoptosis and viability reduction.

Genomic characterization of Nocardia seriolae strains isolated from diseased fish.

Members of the genus Nocardia are widespread in diverse environments; a wide range of Nocardia species are known to cause nocardiosis in several animals, including cat, dog, fish, and humans. Of the pathogenic Nocardia species, N. seriolae is known to cause disease in cultured fish, resulting in major economic loss. We isolated two N. seriolae strains, CK-14008 and EM15050, from diseased fish and sequenced their genomes using the PacBio sequencing platform. To identify their genomic features, we compared their genomes with those of other Nocardia species. Phylogenetic analysis showed that N. seriolae shares a common ancestor with a putative human pathogenic Nocardia species. Moreover, N. seriolae strains were phylogenetically divided into four clusters according to host fish families. Through genome comparison, we observed that the putative pathogenic Nocardia strains had additional genes for iron acquisition. Dozens of antibiotic resistance genes were detected in the genomes of N. seriolae strains; most of the antibiotics were involved in the inhibition of the biosynthesis of proteins or cell walls. Our results demonstrated the virulence features and antibiotic resistance of fish pathogenic N. seriolae strains at the genomic level. These results may be useful to develop strategies for the prevention of fish nocardiosis.

Nocardia seriolae infection in the cultured eel Anguilla japonica in Korea.

Mass mortality occurred at an Anguilla japonica eel farm equipped with a recirculating aquaculture system in Gimcheon, Korea, from late spring to early summer 2015. The cumulative 3-month mortality was 16% (approximately 24,300-150,000 fish). The majority of affected fish displayed ulcerative lesions that progressed to petechial haemorrhages and small white granulomas in the major organs. A Gram-positive, acid-fast, nonmotile bacterium was isolated from internal organ lesions. Phylogenetic analysis of 16S rRNA identified the species as Nocardia seriolae and the strain was designated EM150506. Afterwards, naïve eels were injected with 1.8 × 107 colony-forming units per fish to confirm the strain's pathogenicity, which resulted in a 20% mortality rate within 4 weeks. However, surviving fish still exhibited white N. seriolae colonies in internal organs. To our knowledge, this is the first report of a N. seriolae infection in cultured eel.

Complete Genome Sequence of Multiple-Antibiotic-Resistant Streptococcus parauberis Strain SPOF3K, Isolated from Diseased Olive Flounder (Paralichthys olivaceus).

Here, we report the complete genome sequence of multiple-antibiotic-resistant Streptococcus parauberis strain SPOF3K, isolated from the kidney of a diseased olive flounder in South Korea in 2013. Sequencing using a PacBio platform yielded a circular chromosome of 2,128,740 bp and a plasmid of 23,538 bp, harboring 2,123 and 24 protein-coding genes, respectively.

Molecular characterization, expression and functional analysis of peptidoglycan recognition protein-SC2 from rock bream, Oplegnathus fasciatus.

Peptidoglycan recognition proteins are members of the family of pattern recognition receptors (PRRs), that play important roles in the recognition of peptidoglycan and various biological processes. In this study, we have characterized peptidoglycan recognition protein-SC2 (PGRP-SC2) in rock bream (Oplegnathus fasciatus) (RbPGRP-SC2) and analysed its expression in various tissues after pathogen challenge. A sequence alignment revealed that the residues essential to zinc binding of the deduced protein were highly conserved among all the organisms. Phylogenetic analysis revealed that RbPGRP-SC2 is most closely related to the large yellow croaker PGRP-SC2. RbPGRP-SC2 was ubiquitously expressed in all tissues analysed, predominantly distributed in muscle and skin. After challenge with microbial pathogens (Edwardsiella piscicida), Streptococcus iniae or red seabream iridovirus [RSIV]), RbPGRP-SC2 was up-regulated in all the tissues examined, especially in liver. We produced recombinant RbPGRP-SC2 (rRbPGRP-SC2) using an Escherichia coli expression system. The rRbPGRP-SC2 had agglutination activity towards both Gram-negative (E. piscicida) and Gram-positive bacteria (S. iniae). In addition, rRbPGRP-SC2 induced leukocyte apoptosis and promoted leukocyte phagocytosis. These results suggest that the RbPGRP-SC2 plays an important role in the immune system and in maintaining cellular homeostasis of rock bream.

A Comparison of Genotypic and Phenotypic Methods for Analyzing the Susceptibility to Sulfamethoxazole and Trimethoprim in Edwardsiella piscicida.

In a study of 39 isolates of Edwardsiella piscicida made from Korean aquaculture sites, sul genes were detected in 16 isolates and dfr genes in 19. Ten isolates were shown to contain both sul and dfr genes. MIC and disc diffusion zones assays were performed to measure the phenotypic susceptibilities of the 39 isolates. Normalized resistance interpretation was applied to these data to categorize isolates as either fully susceptible or as manifesting reduced susceptibility. The standard CLSI protocols specify the use of a mixture of sulfamethoxazole/trimethoprim (20:1) in both MIC and disc diffusion tests. Using the CLSI MIC protocol, 100% of the isolates containing dfr genes, but only 75% of the isolates containing sul genes, were categorized as manifesting reduced susceptibility. Using the CLSI disc diffusion protocol, only 58% of the isolates containing dfr genes and 69% of those containing sul genes were categorized as manifesting reduced susceptibility. When the single agent trimethoprim was substituted for the combined mixture in both the MIC and disc diffusion protocols, 100% of the dfr-positive isolates were categorized as NWT. When the single-agent sulfamethoxazole was substituted, the analysis of the MIC characterized 100% and the disc zone data 94% of the sul-positive isolates as manifesting reduced susceptibility. It is argued that the use of trimethoprim and sulfamethoxazole as single agents in phenotypic susceptibility tests would provide more meaningful data than the currently recommended use of these two agents combined.

Stability of virus-like particles of red-spotted grouper nervous necrosis virus in the aqueous state, and the vaccine potential of lyophilized particles.

Virus-like particles (VLPs) are multi protein complexes mimicking the structural properties of the native virus. The development of freeze-dried formulations of such complex protein structures remains a challenge. Red-spotted grouper nervous necrosis virus (RGNNV) causes mass mortality in fish culture, and RGNNV VLPs have been suggested to be promising vaccine candidates. In the present study, the stability of RGNNV VLPs in the liquid state was investigated over a 4-week period, along with the influence of freeze-drying on VLP stability. RGNNV VLPs were completely degraded after one week at 37 °C followed by 3 weeks at ambient temperature, and they were partially degraded after 4 weeks at 4 °C. Therefore, the inherent stability of RGNNV VLP in an aqueous milieu is insufficient for long-term storage. When RGNNV VLPs were freeze-dried in the presence or absence of sugar stabilizers, sorbitol was found to improve VLP stability whereas mannitol reduced it. VLP preparations freeze-dried with sorbitol or without stabilizer were as immunogenic as control (non-freeze dried) VLPs, whereas VLPs freeze-dried in mannitol were less immunogenic. These results indicate that freeze-dried RGNNV VLPs have potential as vaccines.

Oral vaccination through voluntary consumption of the convict grouper Epinephelus septemfasciatus with yeast producing the capsid protein of red-spotted grouper nervous necrosis virus.

Nervous necrosis viruses (NNV) cause serious economic losses in marine fish cultivation. The red-spotted grouper NNV (RGNNV) is the most common species of NNV worldwide. There have been many efforts to develop prophylactic NNV vaccines, and various types of vaccine candidate have been suggested. However, most were designed as injectable vaccines, which are not suitable for large-scale vaccination and cause too much stress to the fish. Oral vaccination through voluntary feeding is an ideal way to provide protective immunity to fish. In the present study, recombinant Saccharomyces cerevisiae producing RGNNV capsid protein was used as oral vaccine. The recombinant yeast was prepared in freeze-dried form after disruption. Convict groupers were divided into three groups, control, and oral and parenteral vaccination groups, each consisting of 700 fishes. The control group received no treatment, the parenteral group received one intraperitoneal injection of RGNNV virus-like particles, and the oral vaccination group consumed feed containing the lysed recombinant yeast; voluntary intake was allowed four times at one-week intervals. Both vaccination groups produced serum RGNNV neutralizing antibody titers of >103 (log 2, 9.96), sustained for at least 95days post-immunization. In addition, in response to challenge with RGNNV both groups suffered significantly reduced mortality and had reduced brain RGNNV titers. These results indicate that recombinant yeast-based oral fish vaccines have great potential for large-scale vaccination.

First Report of Clavinema mariae (Nematoda: Philometridae) in Cultured Rockfish, Sebastes schlegeli, in Cheonsuman (Bay), the Republic of Korea.

In July 2012, philometrid nematodes were discovered in cultured rockfish (Sebastes schlegeli) in Cheonsuman (Bay), the Republic of Korea. The nematodes were detected in the epithelial tissues of the rockfish and were identified as Clavinema mariae based on morphological studies using light and scanning electron microscopy. They revealed the characteristics same as previously identified C. mariae, notably having a long body with narrow posterior half, no caudal projection, a cylindrical-shaped esophagus, a well-developed anterior bulbous part of the esophagus, cephalic papillae, and a dorsal esophageal gland. This is the first confirmation of C. mariae infection in rockfish in Korea.

The first report of CD2 associated protein gene, in a teleost (Rock bream, Oplegnathus fasciatus): An investigation of the immune response upon infection with several pathogens.

CD2 is expressed on the surfaces of virtually all T cells and natural killer (NK) cells. In mammals, the CD2 molecule is 50 kDa. The cytoplasmic tail of CD2 interacts with CD2-associated protein (CD2AP), which plays an important role in mediating the trigger signal in outer magnetic pole cells. In this study, we identified CD2AP from rock bream and investigated its gene expression. The ORF of CD2AP (1950 bp) encodes 650 amino acids (aa). CD2AP has a Src homology 3 (SH3) domain. Quantitative real-time PCR analysis revealed that CD2AP shows higher expression in the gills and skin. Under experimental challenge, CD2AP gene expression was increased as relative to the control after 7 days. This result will improve our understanding of blood vessels in teleost fish, and will provide a basis for the study of CD2-related genes.

Development and application of quantitative detection method for viral hemorrhagic septicemia virus (VHSV) genogroup IVa.

Viral hemorrhagic septicemia virus (VHSV) is a problematic pathogen in olive flounder (Paralichthys olivaceus) aquaculture farms in Korea. Thus, it is necessary to develop a rapid and accurate diagnostic method to detect this virus. We developed a quantitative RT-PCR (qRT-PCR) method based on the nucleocapsid (N) gene sequence of Korean VHSV isolate (Genogroup IVa). The slope and R² values of the primer set developed in this study were -0.2928 (96% efficiency) and 0.9979, respectively. Its comparison with viral infectivity calculated by traditional quantifying method (TCID50) showed a similar pattern of kinetic changes in vitro and in vivo. The qRT-PCR method reduced detection time compared to that of TCID50, making it a very useful tool for VHSV diagnosis.