A comparison of two ketamine doses for field anaesthesia in horses undergoing castration.

BACKGROUND: Ketamine at 2.2 mg/kg given i.v. is often used to induce anaesthesia for surgical procedures in horses under field conditions. Commonly, additional doses are needed to complete the surgery. We hypothesised that surgical conditions would be improved when 5 mg/kg of ketamine was used to induce anaesthesia, while induction and recovery qualities would not differ from those when 2.2 mg/kg ketamine was used. OBJECTIVE: To compare the anaesthetic effects of two ketamine doses (5 and 2.2 mg/kg) during field anaesthesia for castration of horses. STUDY DESIGN: Prospective, randomised, blinded, clinical study. METHOD: Seventy-seven client-owned Icelandic horses presented for castration under field conditions were studied. Pre-anaesthetic medication was xylazine (0.7 mg/kg) butorphanol (25 µg/kg) and acepromazine (50 µg/kg) injected i.v. Anaesthesia was induced with either 2.2 mg/kg (K2.2) or 5 mg/kg (K5) i.v. of ketamine mixed with diazepam (30 µg/kg). The quality of induction, surgical conditions and recovery were compared using subjective and objective measures, and the number of additional ketamine doses recorded. RESULTS: Ketamine 5 mg/kg provided better surgical conditions and a more rapid induction. Recovery quality was subjectively better in K2.2. Five horses in K2.2 and two in K5 required additional ketamine doses. MAIN LIMITATIONS: While the pre-anaesthetic sedation and benzodiazepine doses were consistent among horses, the level of sedation and muscle relaxation achieved differed. CONCLUSION: A ketamine dose of 5 mg/kg can be used to improve the quality of field anaesthesia for castration in Icelandic horses. Although recovery quality is subjectively better when using 2.2 mg/kg, no adverse events were observed during recovery with either dose The Summary is available in Portuguese - see Supporting Information.

A rare missense mutation in CHRNA4 associates with smoking behavior and its consequences.

Using Icelandic whole-genome sequence data and an imputation approach we searched for rare sequence variants in CHRNA4 and tested them for association with nicotine dependence. We show that carriers of a rare missense variant (allele frequency=0.24%) within CHRNA4, encoding an R336C substitution, have greater risk of nicotine addiction than non-carriers as assessed by the Fagerstrom Test for Nicotine Dependence (P=1.2 × 10(-4)). The variant also confers risk of several serious smoking-related diseases previously shown to be associated with the D398N substitution in CHRNA5. We observed odds ratios (ORs) of 1.7-2.3 for lung cancer (LC; P=4.0 × 10(-4)), chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD; P=9.3 × 10(-4)), peripheral artery disease (PAD; P=0.090) and abdominal aortic aneurysms (AAAs; P=0.12), and the variant associates strongly with the early-onset forms of LC (OR=4.49, P=2.2 × 10(-4)), COPD (OR=3.22, P=2.9 × 10(-4)), PAD (OR=3.47, P=9.2 × 10(-3)) and AAA (OR=6.44, P=6.3 × 10(-3)). Joint analysis of the four smoking-related diseases reveals significant association (P=6.8 × 10(-5)), particularly for early-onset cases (P=2.1 × 10(-7)). Our results are in agreement with functional studies showing that the human α4ß2 isoform of the channel containing R336C has less sensitivity for its agonists than the wild-type form following nicotine incubation.

Enteropathogens in acute diarrhea: a general practice-based study in a Nordic country.

The epidemiology of infectious diarrhea influences the microbiological investigation of the disease, and is best elucidated through prospective studies. We undertook such a study in a Nordic country. Patients of all age groups who had acute diarrhea were recruited prospectively from general practice clinics in Iceland. They completed a questionnaire and provided stool samples for the detection of pathogenic viruses, bacteria, and parasites. Of the 464 recruited patients, 211 (45%) had 224 infections. The most common pathogens were calici- and rotaviruses (23% and 18% of 224 infections, respectively), Campylobacter jejuni (17%), Cryptosporidium species (12%), and Salmonella serotypes (10%). Other agents found were Giardia lamblia, astro- and adenoviruses, and Yersinia enterocolitica. Viral pathogens were associated with vomiting, illness for ≤7 days, and younger age groups, while bacterial pathogens were associated with fever, rectal pain, and local or foreign travel, and parasitic pathogens with illness for >7 days. Detection rates for viral infections in the elderly and for Cryptosporidium species were higher than expected. Our study indicates the existence of regional differences in pathogen prevalence that should be taken into account when implementing guidelines for stool testing in patients with acute diarrheal disease.

A national epidemic of campylobacteriosis in Iceland, lessons learned.

Epidemics often result in organizational, policy and technical changes within a country. In 1999, an epidemic of campylobacteriosis was reported in Iceland. The recent availability of fresh poultry products in the marketplace was suggested as the source of infection. This paper reports on the context of the epidemic, reviews interventions implemented to prevent campylobacteriosis, and discusses lessons learned. A retrospective study of interventions implemented in Iceland from June 1995 to December 2007 was conducted by interviewing key informants and reviewing Iceland's literature. Cumulative incidence rates of domestic campylobacteriosis by year and average incidence rates per epidemic period were calculated. Interventions included on-farm surveillance of Campylobacter, producer education, enhanced biosecurity measures, changes in poultry processing, a leak-proof packaging policy, a freezing policy for products from Campylobacter-positive poultry flocks, consumer education, and the creation of a legislated inter-organizational response committee. These interventions appear to have collectively contributed to a decrease in campylobacteriosis' incidence rate near pre-epidemic baseline levels. Expert consultations revealed that the implementation of a Campylobacter surveillance program in poultry and the freezing policy were critical to controlling the disease in the Icelandic population. It was also recognized that new multidisciplinary collaborations among public health, veterinary, and food safety authorities and a sustained co-operation from the poultry industry were integral factors to the mitigation of the epidemic. Iceland's response to the campylobacteriosis epidemic is a lesson learned of inter-disciplinary and inter-organizational precautionary public health action in the face of a complex public health issue.

Comparison of Campylobacter jejuni isolates from human, food, veterinary and environmental sources in Iceland using PFGE, MLST and fla-SVR sequencing.

AIMS: Campylobacter jejuni isolates from various sources in Iceland were genotyped with the aim of assessing the genetic diversity, population structure, source distribution and campylobacter transmission routes to humans. METHODS AND RESULTS: A collection of 584 Campylobacter isolates were collected from clinical cases, food, animals and environment in Iceland in 1999-2002, during a period of national Campylobacter epidemic in Iceland. All isolates were characterized by pulse field gel electrophoresis (PFGE), and selected subset of 52 isolates representing the diversity of the identified PFGE types was further genotyped using multilocus sequence typing (MLST) and fla-SVR sequencing to gain better insight into the population structure. CONCLUSIONS: The results show a substantial diversity within the Icelandic Campylobacter population. Majority of the human Campylobacter infections originated from domestic chicken and cattle isolates. MLST showed the isolates to be distributed among previously reported and common sequence type complexes in the MLST database. SIGNIFICANCE AND IMPACT OF THE STUDY: The genotyping of Campylobacter from various sources has not previously been reported from Iceland, and the results of the study gave a valuable insight into the population structure of Camp. jejuni in Iceland, source distribution and transmission routes to humans. The geographical isolation of Iceland in the north Atlantic provides new information on Campylobacter population dynamics on a global scale.

The impact of domestic travel on estimating regional rates of human campylobacteriosis.

Residential locations of cases are often used as proxy measures for the likely place of exposure and this assumption may result in biases affecting both surveillance and epidemiological studies. This study aimed to describe the importance of domestic travel in cases of human campylobacteriosis reported during routine surveillance in Iceland from 2001 to 2005. Various measures of disease frequency were calculated based upon the cases' region of residence, adjusting location of domestic travel cases to their travel region, as well as separate estimations for travellers and non-travellers. Of the 376 cases included in the analysis, 37% had travelled domestically during their incubation period. Five of the eight regions were identified as high-risk when considering domestic travel whereas there were no high-risk regions when considering only region of residence. The change in regional representation of disease occurrence indicates the importance of collecting domestic travel information in ongoing surveillance activities.

An international outbreak of Shiga toxin-producing Escherichia coli O157 infection due to lettuce, September-October 2007.

Between 14 September and 20 October 2007, an outbreak of Shiga toxin-producing Escherichia coli (STEC) O157 simultaneously occurred in the Netherlands and Iceland. A total of 50 laboratory-confirmed cases were reported with a STEC O157 infection caused by the same clone. The strain was of type O157:H-, PT8, positive for stx1, stx2, eae and e-hly, and sorbitol negative. The most probable cause of this international outbreak was contaminated lettuce, shredded and pre-packed in a Dutch food processing plant. Samples of the environment, raw produce and end products, taken at several vegetable growers and processing plants all tested negative for STEC O157. However, the only epidemiological link between the cases in the Netherlands and in Iceland was the implicated Dutch processing plant. In Europe, food products are often widely distributed posing the risk of potential spread of food borne pathogens simultaneously to several countries. This international outbreak emphasises the importance of common alert and surveillance systems in earlier detection of international outbreaks and better assessment of their spread.

Campylobacter spp. in Icelandic poultry operations and human disease.

We describe the observed relationship of campylobacter in poultry operations to human cases in a closed environment. During 1999 in Iceland, domestic cases of campylobacteriosis reached peak levels at 116/100,000 and in 2000 dropped to 33/100,000. Approximately 62% of broiler carcass rinses were contaminated with Campylobacter spp. in 1999. During 2000, only 15% of the broiler flocks tested Campylobacter spp. positive. In 2000, carcasses from flocks which tested positive on the farms at 4 weeks of age were subsequently frozen prior to distribution. We suggest that public education, enhanced on-farm biological security measures, carcass freezing and other unidentified factors, such as variations in weather, contributed to the large reduction in poultry-borne campylobacteriosis. There is no immediate basis for assigning credit to any specific intervention. We continue to seek additional information to understand the decline in campylobacteriosis and to create a risk assessment model for Campylobacter spp. transmission through this well defined system.

[Fetal nuchal translucency measurement at 11-13 weeks and risk assessment for fetal aneuploidy and cardiac anomalies.].

Ultrasound is currently an integral part of prenatal care. In Iceland, all women are offered one ultrasound examination at 18-20 weeks, to assess fetal health, number of fetuses, placental location and to calculate the estimated due date. Also, about one third will have an early ultrasound examination due to pain, bleeding or uncertain dates. All women, aged 35 and older, are offered an amniocentesis for fetal karyotyping, due to the increased rate of chromosomal abnormalities with advancing maternal age. Younger women are not routinely offered fetal karyotyping. In this review, a method is described that can estimate the risk of chromosomal abnormalities based on an ultrasound examination at 11-13 weeks. The fetal crown rump length and nuchal translucency are measured in a sagittal view. Based on these measurements as well as maternal age, risk assessment for fetal aneuploidy is performed. A screen positive rate of 8% is expected if risk assessment for fetal aneuploidy is 1:300 or higher. This translates into 8% procedure rate for fetal karyotyping. This approach leads to the diagnosis of the majority of all fetal trisomies. The method was developed by the Fetal Medicine Foundation, London, and is now widely used throughout Europe and Canada. The institution teaches the methodology and offers continuous audit for quality assurance. If this methodology were to be applied in Iceland the procedure rate for fetal karyotyping could be reduced from 13% to 8% while improving diagnosis of trisomy 21 from 30% to 80%. The option of offering all expecting couples an early ultrasound and risk assessment for fetal trisomies should be considered.

[Risk assessment for fetal trisomy 21 based on nuchal translucency measurement and biochemical screening at 11-13 weeks.].

Screening for fetal aneuploidy during the first trimester using fetal nuchal translucency measurement and maternal serum free ss-hCG (ss-human chorionic gonadotropin) and PAPP-A (pregnancy associated plasma protein A) is commonly practised. An approach with a one stop clinic for assessment of risk for fetal anomalies, where pre-test counseling, blood test, ultrasound and post-test counseling is offered in one hour visit is described. Based on maternal age, biochemistry and fetal nuchal translucency measurement an estimated risk for fetal trisomies 13,18 and 21 is calculated. The main benefit of this approach in screening for fetal aneuploidy is the short turnaround time, with immediate results and a low screen positive rate. This approach leads to diagnosis of the majority (95%) of fetal aneuploidy cases. If screening is positive a diagnostic test is available with chorionic villous sampling or amniocentesis. In Iceland, fetal karyotyping is offered to women 35 years and older and performed during the second trimester, but by using this approach prenatal diagnosis can be moved to the first trimester and also offered to women of all ages. A screening approach with a series of steps from 10-15 weeks, including maternal blood test at 10 and again at 15 weeks, as well as an ultrasound and nuchal translucency measurement at 11-13 weeks, with integrated results at 15+ weeks has been proposed. This method offers even lower screen positive rate (1%) while detection rates of fetal aneuploides are high (>90%) but it requires four visits instead of one and the prolonged approach is likely to cause excess anxiety for the parents to be. If all women are to be offered prenatal sreening in the first trimester the structure of prenatal care in Iceland needs some modifications including scheduling the first prenatal visit at 8-10 weeks and teaching healthcare providers counseling regarding prenatal testing.

[Fetal nuchal translucency measurements in women aged 35 and older. Results from 1.1. 99-31.12.00.].

OBJECTIVE: Based on a combination of ultrasound fetal nuchal translucency measurement at 11-13 weeks and maternal age, a risk assessment for fetal aneuploidy is calculated. This method identifies a subgroup at risk for fetal aneuploidy, with less invasive testing while increasing the number of fetal aneuploidy cases diagnosed, compared to the current approach in Iceland where fetal aneuploidy risk is based on maternal age only. MATERIAL AND METHODS: All women who presented for an ultrasound and counselling in preparation for an amniocentesis, the majority for advanced maternal age, were offered nuchal translucency measurement and risk assessment for fetal aneuploidy. RESULTS: In 1999 a total of 477 nuchal translucency measurements were performed. Ten fetuses (2.1%) had risk assessment for fetal aneuploidy above 1:300 leading to diagnosis of 5/6 (83%) trisomy 21 cases and two other fetal aneuploidy cases within the group. Three fetuses who had increased nuchal translucency and normal karyotype were normal at birth. Three women who underwent an amniocentesis in spite of risk assessment less then 1:300 had aneuploid fetuses. Ultrasound and nuchal translucency measurement lead to the diagnosis of 7/10 fetal aneuploidy cases within the group. In 2000 a total of 418 nuchal tranlucency measurements were performed. Nine fetuses (2.15%) had risk assessment for fetal aneuploidy above 1:300 leading to diagnosis of 1/1 trisomy 21 case and 2/2 other fetal aneuploidy cases within the group. One fetus had multiple anomalies and the pregnancy was terminated without prior karyotyping. Of the five fetuses who had a normal karyotype one had cardiac abnormality and one an omphalocele. The remaining three were healthy at birth. Ultrasound and fetal nuchal translucency measurements lead to the diagnosis of all fetal aneuploidy cases within the group. CONCLUSIONS: During 1999 and 2000 ultrasound and fetal nuchal translucency measurements in a selected subgroup at risk for fetal aneuploidy lead to the diagnosis of 7/10 and 3/3 fetal aneuploidy cases with 2.1% positive screen rate.

[Misoprostol and dinoprostone for induction of labor: a prospective randomized study.].

OBJECTIVE: The ideal agent for induction of labor when the cervix is unripe is unknown, but several prostaglandin derivatives are currently available. Recently, the synthetic prostaglandin El derivative misoprostol has been used with good success for induction of labor. The cost of misoprostol is only a fraction of the cost of the traditionally used dinoprostone. We conducted a prospective, randomized trial comparing the efficacy and safety of misoprostol and dinoprostone for induction of labor. MATERIAL AND METHODS: One hundred and twenty-three women with an indication for induction of labor and an unfavorable cervical score and intact membranes were randomized to receive either one dose of misoprostol 100 meg or two doses of dinoprostone 3 mg at eight hour intervals, in the posterior vaginal fornix. RESULTS: Fifty-one women received misoprostol and 60 dinoprostone. Twelve women dropped out of the study after randomization, thereof 11 from the miso notprostol group due to a too favorable cervical score (n=9) and ruptured membranes (n=2). The mean time from induction of labor to delivery was 548 and 1,087 minutes in the misoprostol and dinoprostone groups, respectively (p<0.05). The need for oxytocin was 40% in the misoprostol and 71% in the dinopro notstone group (p<0.05). There was no difference in mode of delivery between the groups; 21.6% and 25% were delivered by cesarean section in the miso notprostol and dinoprostone groups, respectively. The incidence of fetal distress as evaluated by brady notcardia, tachycardia or late decelerations was similar in both groups. The occurrence of meconium was 41% and 20.5% in the misoprostol and dinoprostone groups, respectively (p=0.056). The incidence of uterine hyperstimulation was 59.6% in the misopro notstol group and 18.6% in the dinoprostone group (p<0.05). The Apgar score at one minute was 6.6 and 7.6 and at five minutes 8.5 and 9.0 in the misoprostol and dinoprostone groups, respectively (p=0.048 and 0.037). When only vaginal births are examined there was no difference in Apgar score at one and five minutes (p=0.11; p=0.21). CONCLUSIONS: Intravaginal misoprostol and dinopro notstone are both effective in inducing labor when the cervix is unripe. Delivery is faster with this dose of misoprostol compared to dinoprostone and there is less requirement for further augmentation of labor with oxytocin, but the incidence of uterine hyperstimulation is higher. This was, however, not reflected in an increased incidence of fetal distress, cesarean section or adverse neonatal outcome. The ideal dose of misoprostol for induction of labor remains to be determined.

Effects of transdermal nicotine or smoking on nicotine concentrations and maternal-fetal hemodynamics.

OBJECTIVE: To compare nicotine concentrations and fetal middle cerebral artery resistance indices (RIs) during 21-mg transdermal nicotine use with these values during maternal smoking. METHODS: In this randomized, crossover study, participants smoked approximately 20 cigarettes daily and were between 24 and 36 weeks' gestation. Subjects were randomized to transdermal nicotine or to smoking ad libitum for 8 hours. One week later, they crossed over to the other condition. Maternal plasma nicotine concentrations and hemodynamic measurements were obtained before and after the onset of smoking or patch placement. RESULTS: Area under the plasma nicotine concentration-time curve during patch use was similar to continued smoking (93 versus 89 ng-hour/mL, respectively) (P = .77). The mean (standard error [SE] change in the middle cerebral artery RI from baseline to 4 hours later was similar during patch use and smoking: -.002 (0.008) versus -.02 (0.015), respectively (P = .3). The study had greater than 80% power to detect a 25% difference in nicotine concentrations and a change of 2 standard deviations in the middle cerebral artery RI between conditions. An unexpected finding was that of a loss of fetal heart rate (FHR) reactivity in 5/8 tracings after patch placement versus 1/6 tracings after smoking (P = .12). The baseline FHR increased by a mean (SE) of 8 (4) beats per minute with loss of reactivity in the patch condition, compared with a decrease of 3 (3) beats per minute without loss of reactivity (P = .05). CONCLUSION: Eight-hour use of 21-mg transdermal nicotine yields nicotine concentrations and middle cerebral artery RIs similar to those produced by hourly smoking in pregnant smokers.

Renal tubular acidosis in pregnancy: case report and literature review.

Renal tubular acidosis is a rare form of chronic metabolic acidosis, which is either inherited as an autosomal dominant condition (Types 1, 2, and 3) or acquired. Its effects on pregnancy and vice versa are not known, but chronic acidosis may affect fetal bone growth and development. Chronic maternal acidosis may also lead to fetal distress, which should respond to correction of the maternal acidosis. The patient is a 20-year-old gravida 2, para 1-0-0-1, Hispanic female with distal renal tubular acidosis, diagnosed 1 year prior to this pregnancy after suffering from hypokalemic paralysis. During the pregnancy she required steadily increasing doses of potassium and bicarbonate, to maintain electrolyte balance. She delivered a healthy full-term female infant, weighing 2,892 g, with Apgars of 5 and 9 at 1 and 5 min, respectively, following an induction of labor for oligohydramnios. There was no evidence of intrapartum or neonatal distress, and the infant was discharged home with her mother on the first postpartum day in good health. Established renal tubular acidosis, which was adequately treated with bicarbonate and potassium supplementation during pregnancy, had no apparent ill effects on fetal or neonatal well-being in this case.

Atypical presentation of preeclampsia in high-order multifetal gestations.

OBJECTIVE: To describe our experience with preeclampsia in high-order multifetal gestations. METHODS: Records for all triplet and quadruplet pregnancies delivered after 24 weeks' gestation from January 1988 through June 1994 were reviewed. All patients were treated with bed rest from 20 weeks' gestation onward and received corticosteroids weekly beginning at 24 weeks. Tocolytics were used as needed. RESULTS: Twenty-one triplet and eight quadruplet pregnancies were studied. The mean gestational age at delivery was 32.3 and 27.9 weeks, and mean birth weights were 1547 and 1028 g, respectively. Seventeen of 29 patients developed preeclampsia, 14 of the 21 triplet mothers and three of the eight quadruplet mothers. Among 16 patients who were delivered for preeclampsia, only eight had blood pressure (BP) elevation before delivery, whereas ten had epigastric pain, visual disturbances and/or headache; nine had elevated liver enzyme levels; and seven had low platelet counts. Only three patients had proteinuria, and only six had edema. Five women developed the syndrome of hemolysis, elevated liver enzymes, and low platelets postpartum, all of whom had normal BP before delivery. Two patients developed preeclampsia after delivery. A total of 95 infants were delivered, all by cesarean, of whom 93 (98%) survived. CONCLUSION: Preeclampsia is common in high-order multifetal gestations and often presents in an atypical manner. Hypertension is not always the presenting sign, and symptoms consistent with severe preeclampsia and abnormal laboratory values predominate.

Mixed bacteremia with Vibrio metschnikovii in an 83-year-old female patient.

An 83-year-old woman suddenly fell ill and was admitted to the hospital on suspicion of a heart attack. After admission she developed high fever, chills and malaise. Vibrio metshnikovii and Staphylococcus hominis were isolated from 2 separately obtained blood cultures. One of the cultures also yielded Escherichia coli. The patient's condition improved rapidly after treatment with ampicillin intravenously. To our knowledge, this is the fourth reported case of V. metschnikovii bacteremia in humans.