Enablers and barriers to primary health care access for Indigenous adolescents: a systematic review and meta-aggregation of studies across Australia, Canada, New Zealand, and USA.

BACKGROUND: Indigenous adolescents access primary health care services at lower rates, despite their greater health needs and experience of disadvantage. This systematic review identifies the enablers and barriers to primary health care access for Indigenous adolescents to inform service and policy improvements. METHODS: We systematically searched databases for publications reporting enablers or barriers to primary health care access for Indigenous adolescents from the perspective of adolescents, their parents and health care providers, and included studies focused on Indigenous adolescents aged 10-24 years from Australia, Canada, New Zealand, and United States of America. Results were analyzed against the WHO Global standards for quality health-care services for adolescents. An additional ninth standard was added which focused on cultural safety. RESULTS: A total of 41 studies were included. More barriers were identified than enablers, and against the WHO Global standards most enablers and barriers related to supply factors - providers' competencies, appropriate package of services, and cultural safety. Providers who built trust, respect, and relationships; appropriate package of service; and culturally safe environments and care were enablers to care reported by adolescents, and health care providers and parents. Embarrassment, shame, or fear; a lack of culturally appropriate services; and privacy and confidentiality were common barriers identified by both adolescent and health care providers and parents. Cultural safety was identified as a key issue among Indigenous adolescents. Enablers and barriers related to cultural safety included culturally appropriate services, culturally safe environment and care, traditional and cultural practices, cultural protocols, Indigenous health care providers, cultural training for health care providers, and colonization, intergenerational trauma, and racism. Nine recommendations were identified which aim to address the enablers and barriers associated with primary health care access for Indigenous adolescents. CONCLUSION: This review provides important evidence to inform how services, organizations and governments can create accessible primary health care services that specifically meet the needs of Indigenous adolescents. We identify nine recommendations for improving the accessibility of primary health care services for Indigenous adolescents.

Building Indigenous health workforce capacity and capability through leadership - the Miwatj health leadership model.

AIM: In the crowded field of leadership research, Indigenous leadership remains under-researched. This article explores the Leadership Model of an Aboriginal Community Controlled Primary Health Care Organisation providing services to the Yolngu people of remote northern Australia: the Miwatj Health Aboriginal Corporation (Miwatj). BACKGROUND: The limited research which does exist on Indigenous leadership points to unique challenges for Indigenous leaders. These challenges relate to fostering self-determination in their communities, managing significant community expectations, and navigating a path between culturally divergent approaches to management and leadership. METHODS: Guided by Indigenous methodology and using a mixed methods approach, semi-structured interviews, self-reported health service data, organisational and publicly available documents, and literature were analysed using a framework method of thematic analysis to identify key themes of the Miwatj Leadership Model. FINDINGS: The Miwatj Leadership Model is underpinned by three distinctive elements: it offers Yolngu people employment opportunities; it supports staff who want to move into leadership positions and provides capacity building through certificates and diplomas; and it provides for the physical, emotional, and cultural wellbeing of all Yolngu staff. Furthermore, the model respects traditional Yolngu forms of authority and empowers the community to develop, manage and sustain their own health. The Miwatj Leadership Model has been successful in providing formal pathways to support Indigenous staff to take on leadership roles, and has improved the accessibility and acceptability of health care services as a result of Yolngu employment and improved cultural safety. CONCLUSIONS: Translating the Miwatj Leadership Model into other health services will require considerable thought and commitment. The Miwatj Leadership Model can be adapted to meet the needs of other health care services in consideration of the unique context within which they operate. This study has demonstrated the importance of having a formal leadership model that promotes recruitment, retention, and career progression for Indigenous staff.

Aboriginal community-controlled aged care: principles, practices and actions to integrate with primary health care.

AIM: To identify: 1) best practice aged care principles and practices for Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander older peoples, and 2) actions to integrate aged care services with Aboriginal community-controlled primary health care. BACKGROUND: There is a growing number of older Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander peoples and an unmet demand for accessible, culturally safe aged care services. The principles and features of aged care service delivery designed to meet the unique needs of Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander peoples have not been extensively explored and must be understood to inform aged care policy and primary health care planning into the future. METHODS: The research was governed by leaders from across the Aboriginal community-controlled primary health care sector who identified exemplar services to explore best practice in culturally aligned aged care. In-depth case studies were undertaken with two metropolitan Aboriginal community-controlled services. We conducted semi-structured interviews and yarning circles with 46 staff members to explore key principles, ways of working, enablers and challenges for aged care service provision. A framework approach to thematic analysis was undertaken with emergent findings reviewed and refined by participating services and the governance panel to incorporate national perspectives. FINDINGS: A range of principles guided Aboriginal community-controlled aged care service delivery, such as supporting Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander identity, connection with elders and communities and respect for self-determination. Strong governance, effective leadership and partnerships, Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander workforce and culturally safe non-Indigenous workforce were among the identified enablers of aged care. Nine implementation actions guided the integration of aged care with primary health care service delivery. Funding limitations, workforce shortages, change management processes and difficulties with navigating the aged care system were among the reported challenges. These findings contribute to an evidence base regarding accessible, integrated, culturally safe aged care services tailored to the needs of Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander peoples.

Using social networking sites to recruit participants: methods of an online survey of sexual health, knowledge and behaviour of young South Australians.

OBJECTIVE: To describe the methods of recruitment and demographic results of an online sexual health survey using social networking sites (SNS) to recruit people aged 16-29 years in the state of South Australia (SA) during 2019. METHODS: A crosssectional online survey titled 'Let's Talk About It' using SNS (Facebook and Instagram) was administered between July and August 2019, targeting Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander and non-Indigenous young people. The survey comprised questions on demographics information, sexual health knowledge, behaviours and healthcare access. RESULTS: During the data collection period, the study team closely monitored the demographics of participants and adjusted SNS messaging through paid advertising to increase the recruitment of under-represented population groups, especially Aboriginal people, males and regional and remote residents of SA. A total of 2,724 people accessed the survey predominately via Facebook during a six-week period between July and August 2019; 2,380 people were eligible and included in the analysis. Conclusions and implications for public health: Even though SNS have been used previously in recruitment for sexual health issues, small adjustments to the study during recruitment were specifically made to include under-represented populations in the final study. Using SNS is an effective method for recruiting survey participants; during recruitment phases, additional strategies may be required to be inclusive of diverse and under-represented populations.

Use and uptake of web-based therapeutic interventions amongst Indigenous populations in Australia, New Zealand, the United States of America and Canada: a scoping review.

BACKGROUND: Barriers to receiving optimal healthcare exist for Indigenous populations globally for a range of reasons. To overcome such barriers and enable greater access to basic and specialist care, developments in information and communication technologies are being applied. The focus of this scoping review is on web-based therapeutic interventions (WBTI) that aim to provide guidance, support and treatment for health problems. OBJECTIVES: This review identifies and describes international scientific evidence on WBTI used by Indigenous peoples in Australia, New Zealand, Canada and USA for managing and treating a broad range of health conditions. ELIGIBILITY CRITERIA: Studies assessing WBTI designed for Indigenous peoples in Australia, Canada, USA and New Zealand, that were published in English, in peer-reviewed literature, from 2006 to 2018 (inclusive), were considered for inclusion in the review. Studies were considered if more than 50% of participants were Indigenous, or if results were reported separately for Indigenous participants. SOURCES OF EVIDENCE: Following a four-step search strategy in consultation with a research librarian, 12 databases were searched with a view to finding both published and unpublished studies. CHARTING METHODS: Data was extracted, synthesised and reported under four main conceptual categories: (1) types of WBTI used, (2) community uptake of WBTI, (3) factors that impact on uptake and (4) conclusions and recommendations for practice. RESULTS: A total of 31 studies met the inclusion criteria. The WBTI used were interactive websites, screening and assessment tools, management and monitoring tools, gamified avatar-based psychological therapy and decision support tools. Other sources reported the use of mobile apps, multimedia messaging or a mixture of intervention tools. Most sources reported moderate uptake and improved health outcomes for Indigenous people. Suggestions to improve uptake included as follows: tailoring content and presentation formats to be culturally relevant and appropriate, customisable and easy to use. CONCLUSIONS: Culturally appropriate, evidence-based WBTI have the potential to improve health, overcome treatment barriers and reduce inequalities for Indigenous communities. Access to WBTI, alongside appropriate training, allows health care workers to better support their Indigenous clients. Developing WBTI in partnership with Indigenous communities ensures that these interventions are accepted and promoted by the communities.

Assessing the quality of health research from an Indigenous perspective: the Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander quality appraisal tool.

BACKGROUND: The lack of attention to Indigenous epistemologies and, more broadly, Indigenous values in primary research, is mirrored in the standardised critical appraisal tools used to guide evidence-based practice and systematic reviews and meta-syntheses. These critical appraisal tools offer no guidance on how validity or contextual relevance should be assessed for Indigenous populations and cultural contexts. Failure to tailor the research questions, design, analysis, dissemination and knowledge translation to capture understandings that are specific to Indigenous peoples results in research of limited acceptability and benefit and potentially harms Indigenous peoples. A specific Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Quality Appraisal Tool is needed to address this gap. METHOD: The Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Quality Appraisal Tool (QAT) was developed using a modified Nominal Group and Delphi Techniques and the tool's validity, reliability, and feasibility were assessed over three stages of independent piloting. National and international research guidelines were used as points of reference. Piloting of the Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander QAT with Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander and non-Indigenous experts led to refinement of the tool. RESULTS: The Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander QAT consists of 14 questions that assess the quality of health research from an Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander perspective. The questions encompass setting appropriate research questions; community engagement and consultation; research leadership and governance; community protocols; intellectual and cultural property rights; the collection and management of research material; Indigenous research paradigms; a strength-based approach to research; the translation of findings into policy and practice; benefits to participants and communities involved; and capacity strengthening and two-way learning. Outcomes from the assessment of the tool's validity, reliability, and feasibility were overall positive. CONCLUSION: This is the first tool to appraise research quality from the perspective of Indigenous peoples. Through the uptake of the Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander QAT we hope to improve the quality and transparency of research with Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander peoples, with the potential for greater improvements in Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander health and wellbeing.

Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander men and parenting: a scoping review.

Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander men rarely rate a mention within discussions of parenting unless framed in the negative, or as the cause of dysfunctional family life. Consequently, the roles and responsibilities of Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander men within parenting have largely been neglected or ignored. This scoping review aimed to identify and describe Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander parenting programs that focused on male parents. A comprehensive search was conducted of databases, PubMed and Informit ATSIhealth, to identify peer-review publications, while relevant websites were also searched for grey literature. The review identified eight programs that met the inclusion criteria. The review highlights the lack of rigorously researched and published literature on parenting programs that focus on Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander male parents. The programs all reported positive outcomes and demonstrate that given the opportunity, Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander male parents are ready and determined to fulfil their roles and responsibilities as parents to the best of their ability for the benefit of their families and communities. The provision of inclusive parenting programs and services will equip Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander male parents to better support their families during these important times.

An outbreak and case-control study of Salmonella Havana linked to alfalfa sprouts in South Australia, 2018.

An epidemiological investigation and a retrospective case-control study were conducted into an outbreak of Salmonella Havana in alfalfa sprouts, in Adelaide, Australia. In total, 31 cases of S. Havana were notified during June and July 2018 and linked to the outbreak. Eighteen cases and 54 unmatched controls were included in a case-control study. Results from the case-control study indicated an increased risk of illness linked to the consumption of alfalfa sprouts; this was supported by trace-back, sampling and environmental investigations. This outbreak of S. Havana was caused by consumption of alfalfa sprouts from one local sprouts producer. It is unclear as to when in the production of alfalfa sprouts the contamination occurred. However, contaminated seeds and poor pest control are the most likely causes. This investigation highlights the importance of ensuring that producers take appropriate action to minimise the likelihood of contamination and to comply with legislation and standards for primary production and food safety.

Parenting after a history of childhood maltreatment: A scoping review and map of evidence in the perinatal period.

BACKGROUND AND AIMS: Child maltreatment is a global health priority affecting up to half of all children worldwide, with profound and ongoing impacts on physical, social and emotional wellbeing. The perinatal period (pregnancy to two years postpartum) is critical for parents with a history of childhood maltreatment. Parents may experience 'triggering' of trauma responses during perinatal care or caring for their distressed infant. The long-lasting relational effects may impede the capacity of parents to nurture their children and lead to intergenerational cycles of trauma. Conversely, the perinatal period offers a unique life-course opportunity for parental healing and prevention of child maltreatment. This scoping review aims to map perinatal evidence regarding theories, intergenerational pathways, parents' views, interventions and measurement tools involving parents with a history of maltreatment in their own childhoods. METHODS AND RESULTS: We searched Medline, Psychinfo, Cinahl and Embase to 30/11/2016. We screened 6701 articles and included 55 studies (74 articles) involving more than 20,000 parents. Most studies were conducted in the United States (42/55) and involved mothers only (43/55). Theoretical constructs include: attachment, social learning, relational-developmental systems, family-systems and anger theories; 'hidden trauma', resilience, post-traumatic growth; and 'Child Sexual Assault Healing' and socioecological models. Observational studies illustrate sociodemographic and mental health protective and risk factors that mediate/moderate intergenerational pathways to parental and child wellbeing. Qualitative studies provide rich descriptions of parental experiences and views about healing strategies and support. We found no specific perinatal interventions for parents with childhood maltreatment histories. However, several parenting interventions included elements which address parental history, and these reported positive effects on parent wellbeing. We found twenty-two assessment tools for identifying parental childhood maltreatment history or impact. CONCLUSIONS: Perinatal evidence is available to inform development of strategies to support parents with a history of child maltreatment. However, there is a paucity of applied evidence and evidence involving fathers and Indigenous parents.

Evaluating a research capacity strengthening program for Aboriginal community-controlled health organisations.

A Masterclass Program was developed to strengthen the research capacity of staff within Aboriginal Community-Controlled Health Organisations (ACCHOs) and featured three Masterclasses delivered across Australia, including Understanding Research, Undertaking Research and Research Evaluation. A mixed-method process and impact evaluation of the Masterclass Program was undertaken. The process evaluation examined the reach of the Program and the impact evaluation comprised an online survey (n=45) and semi-structured interviews (n=21) with Masterclass participants. During 2014-17, 27 Masterclasses were delivered to 260 people, including predominantly ACCHO personnel but also Indigenous doctors and research institute staff who work closely with the ACCHO sector. Most survey respondents felt the Masterclasses improved their understanding of research and their willingness to participate in and undertake research. The qualitative analysis confirmed this and suggested that Masterclasses were implemented in a supportive learning environment which led to increased research capacity (increased research awareness, changed perceptions, increased understanding, critical thinking and new confidence) and ultimately enhanced research engagement (willingness to participate, motivating others, empowered critique of research partners and proposals, interest in further research training). Barriers to research engagement and areas for improvement of the Masterclass Program before, during and after Masterclasses were also identified.

"I feel more comfortable speaking to a male": Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander men's discourse on utilizing primary health care services.

BACKGROUND: Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander men have the highest morbidity and mortality rates, and lowest rates of health service utilization in Australia. There is a current perception that Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander men are disinterested in their health. This study aimed to identify the perceived motivators, barriers and enablers of Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander men's utilization of primary health care services, explore their experiences and obtain suggestions from them as to how services could be modified to improve utilization. METHODS: This study utilized the principles of Indigenist Research Methods. Semi-structured interviews with Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander men (N = 19) took place in South Australia and far north Queensland. Participants were asked about their experiences with primary health care services, including what they could remember as a child. A thematic analysis of the qualitative data was completed without the use of computer software. RESULTS: Feelings of invincibility, shame, being uncomfortable, fearful, along with long waiting times, having a lack of knowledge, and culturally inappropriate staff/services were all found to be barriers to service utilization. Enabling factors included convenience, the perceived quality of the service, feeling culturally safe and/or a sense of belonging, and having a rapport with staff. Motivation for attending primary health care services included going when feeling sick/unwell, attending a particular service (dental or sexual health), visiting for check-ups and preventative health and family encouragement. This study also highlights strategies surrounding logistical factors, promotion of services and improved communications, having culturally appropriate services and providing gender specific services all of which were suggested by the participants to improve service utilization. CONCLUSION: Contrary to common misperceptions, this study demonstrated that most of the Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander men participants were motivated to engage with primary health care services for preventative health care. Even though there were men that fitted the stereo-type who avoid doctors, there were usually underlying reasons and barriers accounting for this reluctance. This study suggests that if primary health care services commit to better understanding the barriers, enablers and motivators their cohort of men face, then utilization could be greatly improved.

Understanding the utilization of primary health care services by Indigenous men: a systematic review.

BACKGROUND: Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander men experience worse health outcomes and are the most marginalized and disadvantaged population group in Australia. Primary health care services are critical to providing both clinical and social and emotional support, however, remain underutilized by Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander men. This review aims to better understand the utilization of primary health care services by Indigenous men and assess the effectiveness of strategies implemented to improve utilization. METHODS: A four-step search strategy was employed across four databases to find peer-reviewed publications and grey literature from Australia, New Zealand, Canada and America. The search began in March 2015 and included the following databases PubMed, CINAHL, Informit (Indigenous collection) and Embase. Additional databases and websites were also searched for grey literature, reference lists of included publications were searched for additional studies and relevant experts were consulted. RESULTS: The literature search found seven articles that met the inclusion criteria; four describing three research projects, plus three expert opinion pieces. The search was unable to find published research on strategies implemented to improve primary health care utilization by Indigenous men. There is limited published research focused on the utilization of primary health care by Indigenous men. From the identified papers Indigenous men described factors impacting utilization which were categorized into three primary organizing themes; those related to health services, the attitudes of Indigenous men and knowledge. It is evident from the identified papers that improvements in Indigenous health can only occur if future programs are developed in collaboration with health services and Indigenous men to address differing requirements. CONCLUSIONS: Currently, health systems in Australia are limited in their ability to improve the health and wellbeing of Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander males without such strategies. Future research should focus on evaluating the implementation of men specific utilization strategies. It is through evidence-based research that subsequent policies and programs can be made and implemented to improve Indigenous men's health.

Characteristics of Indigenous primary health care service delivery models: a systematic scoping review.

BACKGROUND: Indigenous populations have poorer health outcomes compared to their non-Indigenous counterparts. The evolution of Indigenous primary health care services arose from mainstream health services being unable to adequately meet the needs of Indigenous communities and Indigenous peoples often being excluded and marginalised from mainstream health services. Part of the solution has been to establish Indigenous specific primary health care services, for and managed by Indigenous peoples. There are a number of reasons why Indigenous primary health care services are more likely than mainstream services to improve the health of Indigenous communities. Their success is partly due to the fact that they often provide comprehensive programs that incorporate treatment and management, prevention and health promotion, as well as addressing the social determinants of health. However, there are gaps in the evidence base including the characteristics that contribute to the success of Indigenous primary health care services in providing comprehensive primary health care. This systematic scoping review aims to identify the characteristics of Indigenous primary health care service delivery models. METHOD: This systematic scoping review was led by an Aboriginal researcher, using the Joanna Briggs Institute Scoping Review Methodology. All published peer-reviewed and grey literature indexed in PubMed, EBSCO CINAHL, Embase, Informit, Mednar, and Trove databases from September 1978 to May 2015 were reviewed for inclusion. Studies were included if they describe the characteristics of service delivery models implemented within an Indigenous primary health care service. Sixty-two studies met the inclusion criteria. Data were extracted and then thematically analysed to identify the characteristics of Indigenous PHC service delivery models. RESULTS: Culture was the most prominent characteristic underpinning all of the other seven characteristics which were identified - accessible health services, community participation, continuous quality improvement, culturally appropriate and skilled workforce, flexible approach to care, holistic health care, and self-determination and empowerment. CONCLUSION: While the eight characteristics were clearly distinguishable within the review, the interdependence between each characteristic was also evident. These findings were used to develop a new Indigenous PHC Service Delivery Model, which clearly demonstrates some of the unique characteristics of Indigenous specific models.

Web-based therapeutic interventions for assessing, managing and treating health conditions in Indigenous people: a scoping review protocol.

REVIEW OBJECTIVES/QUESTIONS: The objective of the scoping review is to map the international scientific literature on web-based therapeutic interventions (WBTI) used by Indigenous people for assessing, managing and treating health conditions. The focus of this review is WBTIs for a broad range of health conditions, including but not limited to, communicable and non-communicable diseases, mental health conditions (including the broader concept of social and emotional wellbeing), use of harmful substances and gambling.The questions for the scoping review are.

Access to primary health care services for Indigenous peoples: A framework synthesis.

BACKGROUND: Indigenous peoples often find it difficult to access appropriate mainstream primary health care services. Securing access to primary health care services requires more than just services that are situated within easy reach. Ensuring the accessibility of health care for Indigenous peoples who are often faced with a vast array of additional barriers including experiences of discrimination and racism, can be complex. This framework synthesis aimed to identify issues that hindered Indigenous peoples from accessing primary health care and then explore how, if at all, these were addressed by Indigenous health care services. METHODS: To be included in this framework synthesis papers must have presented findings focused on access to (factors relating to Indigenous peoples, their families and their communities) or accessibility of Indigenous primary health care services. Findings were imported into NVivo and a framework analysis undertaken whereby findings were coded to and then thematically analysed using Levesque and colleague's accessibility framework. RESULTS: Issues relating to the cultural and social determinants of health such as unemployment and low levels of education influenced whether Indigenous patients, their families and communities were able to access health care. Indigenous health care services addressed these issues in a number of ways including the provision of transport to and from appointments, a reduction in health care costs for people on low incomes and close consultation with, if not the direct involvement of, community members in identifying and then addressing health care needs. CONCLUSIONS: Indigenous health care services appear to be best placed to overcome both the social and cultural determinants of health which hamper Indigenous peoples from accessing health care. Findings of this synthesis also suggest that Levesque and colleague's accessibility framework should be broadened to include factors related to the health care system such as funding.

Characteristics of Indigenous primary health care models of service delivery: a scoping review protocol.

REVIEW OBJECTIVE: The objective of the scoping review is to identify and describe within the existing literature the characteristics (values, principles, components and suggest practical applications) of primary health care models of service delivery for Indigenous people. More specifically, the review question is:What are the characteristics (values, principles, components and suggested practical applications) of primary health care models of service delivery for Indigenous people?Findings from this scoping review will inform two systematic reviews. One of these will explore the acceptability and the other the effectiveness of identified characteristics. METHODOLOGY: The scoping review will follow the JBI Scoping Review methodology as outlined in the 2015 Joanna Briggs Institute Reviewers' Manual. BACKGROUND: Indigenous populations in colonized countries experience worse health outcomes relative to their non-Indigenous counterparts. In Australia, in the period 2010 to 2012 the estimated gap in life expectancy between Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Australians compared to non-Indigenous Australians was 10 years Similar gaps in life expectancy between Indigenous and non-Indigenous have been demonstrated in other countries, such as New Zealand, Canada and the United StatesThe gap in life expectancy and the health disadvantage experienced by Indigenous people is in part the result of mainstream health services not adequately meeting the health needs of Indigenous people and Indigenous people's inability to access mainstream services Part of the solution has been the establishment of primary health care services for and in many cases run by Indigenous people. Indigenous primary health services have been developed to provide culturally appropriate services that meet the needs of local Indigenous communities.In Australia, the first Aboriginal medical service was established in 1971 in Redfern, New South Wales, by "community activists in response to ongoing discrimination against Aboriginal people within mainstream health services to address the poor health and premature deaths of Aboriginal people, and to provide a culturally appropriate system of health care". There are now over 150 Aboriginal Community Controlled Health Services in Australia. Aboriginal Community Controlled Health Services are underpinned by common values such as culture, cultural respect, integrity, inclusion, self-determination, community control, sovereignty and leadership.Similar models of Indigenous health services exist in other countries, such as Maori health providers in New Zealand, First Nations and Inuit Health Authorities in Canada, and the Indian Health Services in the US. In New Zealand, Maori health providers deliver health and disability services to Maori and non-Maori clients. The difference between Maori health providers and mainstream services in New Zealand is that Maori health services are based on kaupapa, a plan or set of principles and ideas that informs behavior and customs, and the delivery framework which is distinctively Maori. First Nations and Inuit Health Authorities in Canada coordinate and integrate health programs and services to achieve better health outcomes for First Nations people. These community-based services largely focus on health promotion and prevention. First Nations and Inuit Health Authorities work under a unique health governance structure that includes local First Nations' leadership, based on the philosophy of self-governance and self-determination, which represent and address the health needs of First Nation communities. The Indian Health Service (IHS) in the US is responsible for providing comprehensive health services to American Indians and Alaska Natives. The IHS aims to raise the physical, mental, social and spiritual health of American Indians and Alaska Natives to the highest level, and its goal is "to ensure that comprehensive, culturally acceptable personal and public health services are available and accessible to American Indian and Alaska Native people". The IHS "grew out of a special government-to-government relationship between the federal government and Indian Tribes".Evidence suggests that "a strong primary health care sector is essential to the health and wellbeing of a population, and that a strong primary health care sector is associated with better population health, reduced costs of health care provision, and greater efficiency within the system". A study of Aboriginal Canadians shows that poor access and ineffective primary health care services were directly related to increased avoidable hospital admissions. In addition, a recent study in Australia focusing on the costs and the health outcomes associated with primary care use by Indigenous people with diabetes in remote communities in the Northern Territory demonstrates that improved access to primary health care which is responsive to the needs of Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander people is both cost-effective and associated with better health outcomes.Given the strong link between primary health care and health outcomes and the significant contribution Indigenous health services make towards reducing the health disadvantage experienced by Indigenous people, it is important to understand the characteristics that support the delivery of health provided by Indigenous health services and their unique models. While there is not a clear definition in the literature about what a model of care or model of service delivery is, for the purpose of this review, it will encompass all factors involved in the delivery of care including but not limited to the vision, values and strategies that underpin the delivery of care, healthcare services and programs, governance and leadership, workforce, organization and supply, and infrastructure and other resources.The aim of this scoping review is to determine the characteristics of Indigenous primary health care models of service delivery by drawing on existing literature that look at the way in which services are delivered in this setting.An initial search of literature was conducted to establish whether there are studies with findings available to answer the review question, and whether there is a systematic or scoping review addressing the knowledge gap currently underway or published. There are no systematic or scoping reviews published or underway that address the question proposed by this review.