Chemistry domain of applicability evaluation against existing estrogen receptor high-throughput assay-based activity models.

Introduction: The U. S. Environmental Protection Agency's Endocrine Disruptor Screening Program (EDSP) Tier 1 assays are used to screen for potential endocrine system-disrupting chemicals. A model integrating data from 16 high-throughput screening assays to predict estrogen receptor (ER) agonism has been proposed as an alternative to some low-throughput Tier 1 assays. Later work demonstrated that as few as four assays could replicate the ER agonism predictions from the full model with 98% sensitivity and 92% specificity. The current study utilized chemical clustering to illustrate the coverage of the EDSP Universe of Chemicals (UoC) tested in the existing ER pathway models and to investigate the utility of chemical clustering to evaluate the screening approach using an existing 4-assay model as a test case. Although the full original assay battery is no longer available, the demonstrated contribution of chemical clustering is broadly applicable to assay sets, chemical inventories, and models, and the data analysis used can also be applied to future evaluation of minimal assay models for consideration in screening. Methods: Chemical structures were collected for 6,947 substances via the CompTox Chemicals Dashboard from the over 10,000 UoC and grouped based on structural similarity, generating 826 chemical clusters. Of the 1,812 substances run in the original ER model, 1,730 substances had a single, clearly defined structure. The ER model chemicals with a clearly defined structure that were not present in the EDSP UoC were assigned to chemical clusters using a k-nearest neighbors approach, resulting in 557 EDSP UoC clusters containing at least one ER model chemical. Results and Discussion: Performance of an existing 4-assay model in comparison with the existing full ER agonist model was analyzed as related to chemical clustering. This was a case study, and a similar analysis can be performed with any subset model in which the same chemicals (or subset of chemicals) are screened. Of the 365 clusters containing >1 ER model chemical, 321 did not have any chemicals predicted to be agonists by the full ER agonist model. The best 4-assay subset ER agonist model disagreed with the full ER agonist model by predicting agonist activity for 122 chemicals from 91 of the 321 clusters. There were 44 clusters with at least two chemicals and at least one agonist based upon the full ER agonist model, which allowed accuracy predictions on a per-cluster basis. The accuracy of the best 4-assay subset ER agonist model ranged from 50% to 100% across these 44 clusters, with 32 clusters having accuracy ≥90%. Overall, the best 4-assay subset ER agonist model resulted in 122 false-positive and only 2 false-negative predictions compared with the full ER agonist model. Most false positives (89) were active in only two of the four assays, whereas all but 11 true positive chemicals were active in at least three assays. False positive chemicals also tended to have lower area under the curve (AUC) values, with 110 out of 122 false positives having an AUC value below 0.214, which is lower than 75% of the positives as predicted by the full ER agonist model. Many false positives demonstrated borderline activity. The median AUC value for the 122 false positives from the best 4-assay subset ER agonist model was 0.138, whereas the threshold for an active prediction is 0.1. Conclusion: Our results show that the existing 4-assay model performs well across a range of structurally diverse chemicals. Although this is a descriptive analysis of previous results, several concepts can be applied to any screening model used in the future. First, the clustering of the chemicals provides a means of ensuring that future screening evaluations consider the broad chemical space represented by the EDSP UoC. The clusters can also assist in prioritizing future chemicals for screening in specific clusters based on the activity of known chemicals in those clusters. The clustering approach can be useful in providing a framework to evaluate which portions of the EDSP UoC chemical space are reliably covered by in silico and in vitro approaches and where predictions from either method alone or both methods combined are most reliable. The lessons learned from this case study can be easily applied to future evaluations of model applicability and screening to evaluate future datasets.

Optimizing androgen receptor prioritization using high-throughput assay-based activity models.

Introduction: Computational models using data from high-throughput screening assays have promise for prioritizing and screening chemicals for testing under the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency's Endocrine Disruptor Screening Program (EDSP). The purpose of this work was to demonstrate a data processing method for the determination of optimal minimal assay batteries from a larger comprehensive model, to provide a uniform method of evaluating the performance of future minimal assay batteries compared with the androgen receptor (AR) pathway model, and to incorporate chemical cluster analysis into this evaluation. Although several of the assays in the AR pathway model are no longer available through the original vendor, this approach could be used for future evaluations of minimal assay models for prioritization and screening. Methods: We compared two previously published models and found that an expanded 14-assay model had higher sensitivity for antagonists, whereas the original 11-assay model had slightly higher sensitivity for agonists. We then investigated subsets of assays in the original AR pathway model to optimize overall testing strategies that minimize cost while maintaining sensitivity across a broad chemical space. Results and Discussion: Evaluation of the critical assays across subset models derived from the 14-assay model identified three critical assays for predicting antagonism and two critical assays for predicting agonism. A minimum of nine assays is required for predicting agonism and antagonism with high sensitivity (95%). However, testing workflows guided by chemical structure-based clusters can reduce the average number of assays needed per chemical by basing the assays selected for testing on the likelihood of a chemical being an AR agonist, according to its structure. Our results show that a multi-stage testing workflow can provide 95% sensitivity while requiring only 48% of the resources required for running all assays from the original full models. The resources can be reduced further by incorporating in silico activity predictions. Conclusion: This work illustrates a data-driven approach that incorporates chemical clustering and simultaneous consideration of antagonism and agonism mechanisms to more efficiently screen chemicals. This case study provides a proof of concept for prioritization and screening strategies that can be utilized in future analyses to minimize the overall number of assays needed for predicting AR activity, which will maximize the number of chemicals that can be tested and allow data-driven prioritization of chemicals for further screening under the EDSP.

Design, Synthesis, and Structure-Activity Relationship Studies of Novel GPR88 Agonists (4-Substituted-phenyl)acetamides Based on the Reversed Amide Scaffold.

The development of synthetic agonists for the orphan receptor GPR88 has recently attracted significant interest, given the promise of GPR88 as a novel drug target for psychiatric and neurodegenerative disorders. Examination of structure-activity relationships of two known agonist scaffolds 2-PCCA and 2-AMPP, as well as the recently resolved cryo-EM structure of 2-PCCA-bound GPR88, led to the design of a new scaffold based on the "reversed amide" strategy of 2-AMPP. A series of novel (4-substituted-phenyl)acetamides were synthesized and assessed in cAMP accumulation assays as GPR88 agonists, which led to the discovery of several compounds with better or comparable potencies to 2-AMPP. Computational docking studies suggest that these novel GPR88 agonists bind to the same allosteric site of GPR88 that 2-PCCA occupies. Collectively, our findings provide structural insight and SAR requirement at the allosteric site of GPR88 and a new scaffold for further development of GPR88 allosteric agonists.

The development of diphenyleneiodonium analogs as GPR3 agonists.

G protein-coupled receptor 3 (GPR3) is an orphan receptor potentially involved in many important physiological processes such as drug abuse, neuropathic pain, and anxiety and depression related disorders. Pharmacological studies of GPR3 have been limited due to the restricted number of known agonists and inverse agonists for this constitutively active receptor. In this medicinal chemistry study, we report the discovery of GPR3 agonists based off the diphenyleneiodonium (DPI) scaffold. The most potent full agonist was the 3-trifluoromethoxy analog (32) with an EC50 of 260 nM and 90% efficacy compared to DPI. Investigation of a homology model of GPR3 from multiple sequence alignment resulted in the finding of a binding site rich in potential π-π and π-cation interactions stabilizing DPI-scaffold agonists. MMGBSA free energy analysis showed a good correlation with trends in observed EC50s. DPI analogs retained the same high receptor selectivity for GPR3 over GPR6 and GPR12 as observed with DPI. Collectively, the DPI analog series shows that order of magnitude improvements in potency with the scaffold were attainable; however, attempts to replace the iodonium ion to make the scaffold more druggable failed.

Isoquinolone derivatives as lysophosphatidic acid receptor 5 (LPA5) antagonists: Investigation of structure-activity relationships, ADME properties and analgesic effects.

Blockade of lysophosphatidic acid receptor 5 (LPA5) by a recently reported antagonist AS2717638 (2) attenuated inflammatory and neuropathic pains, although it showed moderate in vivo efficacy and its structure-activity relationships and the ADME properties are little studied. We therefore designed and synthesized a series of isoquinolone derivatives and evaluated their potency in LPA5 calcium mobilization and cAMP assays. Our results show that substituted phenyl groups or bicyclic aromatic rings such as benzothiophenes or benzofurans are tolerated at the 2-position, 4-substituted piperidines are favored at the 4-position, and methoxy groups at the 6- and 7-positions are essential for activity. Compounds 65 and 66 showed comparable in vitro potency, excellent selectivity against LPA1-LPA4 and >50 other GPCRs, moderate metabolic stability, and high aqueous solubility and brain permeability. Both 65 and 66 significantly attenuated nociceptive hypersensitivity at lower doses than 2 and had longer-lasting effects in an inflammatory pain model, and 66 also dose-dependently reduced mechanical allodynia in the chronic constriction injury model and opioid-induced hyperalgesia at doses that had no effect on the locomotion in rats. These results suggest that these isoquinolone derivatives as LPA5 antagonists are of promise as potential analgesics.

Structure-Activity Relationship Development Efforts towards Peripherally Selective Analogs of the Cannabinoid Receptor Partial Agonist BAY 59-3074.

Selective modulation of peripheral cannabinoid receptors (CBRs) has potential therapeutic applications in medical conditions, including obesity, diabetes, liver diseases, GI disorders and pain. While there have been considerable efforts to produce selective antagonists or full agonists of CBRs, there has been limited reports on the development of partial agonists. Partial agonists targeting peripheral CBRs may have desirable pharmacological profiles while not producing centrally mediated dissociative effects. Bayer reported that BAY 59-3074 is a CNS penetrant partial agonist of both CB1 and CB2 receptors with efficacy in rat models of neuropathic and inflammatory pain. In this report, we demonstrate our efforts to synthesize analogs that would favor peripheral selectivity, while maintaining partial agonism of CB1. Our efforts led to the identification of a novel compound, which is a partial agonist of the human CB1 (hCB1) receptor with vastly diminished brain exposure compared to BAY 59-3074.

Discovery of Arylsulfonamides as Dual Orexin Receptor Agonists.

Loss of orexin-producing neurons results in narcolepsy with cataplexy, and orexin agonists have been shown to increase wakefulness and alleviate narcolepsy symptoms in animal models. Several OX2R agonists have been reported but with little or no activity at OX1R. We conducted structure-activity relationship studies on the OX2R agonist YNT-185 (2) and discovered dual agonists such as RTOXA-43 (40) with EC50's of 24 nM at both OX2R and OX1R. Computational modeling studies based on the agonist-bound OX2R cryogenic electron microscopy structures showed that 40 bound in the same binding pocket and interactions of the pyridylmethyl group of 40 with OX1R may have contributed to its high OX1R potency. Intraperitoneal injection of 40 increased time awake, decreased time asleep, and increased sleep/wake consolidation in 12-month old mice. This work provides a promising dual small molecule agonist and supports development of orexin agonists as potential treatments for orexin-deficient disorders such as narcolepsy.

Rational design of cannabinoid type-1 receptor allosteric modulators: Org27569 and PSNCBAM-1 hybrids.

Allosteric modulation offers an alternate approach to target the cannabinoid type-1 receptor (CB1) for therapeutic benefits. Examination of the two widely studied prototypic CB1 negative allosteric modulators (NAMs) Org27569 and PSNCBAM-1 revealed structural resemblance and similar structure-activity relationships (SARs). In silico docking and dynamics simulation studies using the crystal structure of CB1 co-bound with CP55,940 and Org27569 suggested that Org27569 and PSNCBAM-1 occupied the same binding pocket and several common interactions were present in both series with the CB1 receptor. A new scaffold was therefore designed by merging the key structural features from the two series and the hybrids retained these binding features in the in silico docking studies. In addition, one such hybrid displayed similar functions to Org27569 in dynamic simulations by preserving a key R2143.50-D3386.30 salt bridge and maintaining an antagonist-like Helix3-Helix6 interhelical distance. Based on these results, a series of hybrids were synthesized and assessed in calcium mobilization, [35S]GTPγS binding and cAMP assays. Several compounds displayed comparable potencies to Org27569 and PSNCBAM-1 in these assays. This work offers new insight of the SAR requirement at the allosteric site of the CB1 receptor and provides a new scaffold that can be optimized for the development of future CB1 allosteric modulators.

Therapeutic and Prophylactic Vaccines to Counteract Fentanyl Use Disorders and Toxicity.

The incidence of fatal overdoses has increased worldwide due to the widespread access to illicit fentanyl and its potent analogues. Vaccines offer a promising strategy to reduce the prevalence of opioid use disorders (OUDs) and to prevent toxicity from accidental and deliberate exposure to fentanyl and its derivatives. This study describes the development and characterization of vaccine formulations consisting of novel fentanyl-based haptens conjugated to carrier proteins. Vaccine efficacy was tested against opioid-induced behavior and toxicity in mice and rats challenged with fentanyl and its analogues. Prophylactic vaccination reduced fentanyl- and sufentanil-induced antinociception, respiratory depression, and bradycardia in mice and rats. Therapeutic vaccination also reduced fentanyl intravenous self-administration in rats. Because of their selectivity, vaccines did not interfere with the pharmacological effects of commonly used anesthetics nor with methadone, naloxone, oxycodone, or heroin. These preclinical data support the translation of vaccines as a viable strategy to counteract fentanyl use disorders and toxicity.

Blocking Alcoholic Steatosis in Mice with a Peripherally Restricted Purine Antagonist of the Type 1 Cannabinoid Receptor.

Type 1 cannabinoid receptor (CB1) antagonists have demonstrated promise for the treatment of obesity, liver disease, metabolic syndrome, and dyslipidemias. However, the inhibition of CB1 receptors in the central nervous system can produce adverse effects, including depression, anxiety, and suicidal ideation. Efforts are now underway to produce peripherally restricted CB1 antagonists to circumvent CNS-associated undesirable effects. In this study, a series of analogues were explored in which the 4-aminopiperidine group of compound 2 was replaced with aryl- and heteroaryl-substituted piperazine groups both with and without a spacer. This resulted in mildly basic, potent antagonists of human CB1 (hCB1). The 2-chlorobenzyl piperazine, 25, was found to be potent ( Ki = 8 nM); to be >1000-fold selective for hCB1 over hCB2; to have no hERG liability; and to possess favorable ADME properties including high oral absorption and negligible CNS penetration. Compound 25 was tested in a mouse model of alcohol-induced liver steatosis and found to be efficacious. Taken together, 25 represents an exciting lead compound for further clinical development or refinement.

Re-sensitizing Multidrug Resistant Bacteria to Antibiotics by Targeting Bacterial Response Regulators: Characterization and Comparison of Interactions between 2-Aminoimidazoles and the Response Regulators BfmR from Acinetobacter baumannii and QseB from Francisella spp.

2-aminoimidazole (2-AI) compounds inhibit the formation of bacterial biofilms, disperse preformed biofilms, and re-sensitize multidrug resistant bacteria to antibiotics. 2-AIs have previously been shown to interact with bacterial response regulators, but the mechanism of interaction is still unknown. Response regulators are one part of two-component systems (TCS). TCSs allow cells to respond to changes in their environment, and are used to trigger quorum sensing, virulence factors, and antibiotic resistance. Drugs that target the TCS signaling process can inhibit pathogenic behavior, making this a potent new therapeutic approach that has not yet been fully exploited. We previously laid the groundwork for the interaction of the Acinetobacter baumannii response regulator BfmR with an early 2-AI derivative. Here, we further investigate the response regulator/2-AI interaction and look at a wider library of 2-AI compounds. By combining molecular modeling with biochemical and cellular studies, we expand on a potential mechanism for interaction between response regulators and 2-AIs. We also establish that Francisella tularensis/novicida, encoding for only three known response regulators, can be a model system to study the interaction between 2-AIs and response regulators. We show that knowledge gained from studying Francisella can be applied to the more complex A. baumannii system, which contains over 50 response regulators. Understanding the impact of 2-AIs on response regulators and their mechanism of interaction will lead to the development of more potent compounds that will serve as adjuvant therapies to broad-range antibiotics.

Discovery of Novel Proline-Based Neuropeptide FF Receptor Antagonists.

The neuropeptide FF (NPFF) system has been implicated in a number of physiological processes including modulating the pharmacological activity of opioid analgesics and several other classes of drugs of abuse. In this study, we report the discovery of a novel proline scaffold with antagonistic activity at the NPFF receptors through a high throughput screening campaign using a functional calcium mobilization assay. Focused structure-activity relationship studies on the initial hit 1 have resulted in several analogs with calcium mobilization potencies in the submicromolar range and modest selectivity for the NPFF1 receptor. Affinities and potencies of these compounds were confirmed in radioligand binding and functional cAMP assays. Two compounds, 16 and 33, had good solubility and blood-brain barrier permeability that fall within the range of CNS permeant candidates without the liability of being a P-glycoprotein substrate. Finally, both compounds reversed fentanyl-induced hyperalgesia in rats when administered intraperitoneally. Together, these results point to the potential of these proline analogs as promising NPFF receptor antagonists.

Topoisomerase I (Top1): a major target of FL118 for its antitumor efficacy or mainly involved in its side effects of hematopoietic toxicity?

FL118 is a novel camptothecin (CPT) analogue that possesses exceptional antitumor efficacy in human tumor animal models. To date, two CPT analogues, irinotecan and topotecan, have been approved by the FDA for cancer treatment. FL118 exhibits superior antitumor activity over irinotecan and topotecan, and effectively overcomes the irinotecan- or topotecan-resistant human tumors in animal models. Accordingly, FL118 selectively inhibits the expression of multiple cancer-associated proteins (survivin, Mcl-1, XIAP, cIAP2, MdmX). However, FL118 has hematopoietic toxicity similar to irinotecan and topotecan, suggesting that FL118's hematopoietic toxicity may share a mechanism similar to irinotecan and topotecan. It is known that CPTs including irinotecan, SN-38 (active metabolite of irinotecan) and topotecan are topoisomerase I (Top1) inhibitors. However, the evidence from our studies failed to reveal that FL118 is a better Top1 inhibitor than SN-38. It was documented that Top1 expression level is positively associated with CPTs' sensitivity. Low Top1 expression links to CPTs' resistance. In contrast to these findings, we found that human colorectal tumor sensitivity to FL118 is irrelevant to the expression level of Top1 protein. FL118 can show high antitumor efficacy in Top1-negative tumors, while Top1 highly positive tumors can exhibit FL118 resistance. This suggests that the presence of Top1 target is not critical for FL118 antitumor activity. In other words, targeting Top1 by FL118 may not play a major role for its antitumor efficacy. However, studies indicate that FL118 can bind to, and inhibit Top1 activity. This raises the possibility that inhibition of Top1 by FL118 may predominantly be involved in hematopoietic toxicity, but not in FL118 antitumor activity. In this article, we will summarize existing observations and provide our up-to-date research results to support our opinion on this important topic.

Effect of Substitution on the Aniline Moiety of the GPR88 Agonist 2-PCCA: Synthesis, Structure-Activity Relationships, and Molecular Modeling Studies.

GPR88, an orphan receptor richly expressed in the striatum, is implicated in a number of basal ganglia-associated disorders. In order to elucidate the functions of GPR88, an in vivo probe appropriate for CNS investigation is required. We previously reported that 2-PCCA was able to modulate GPR88-mediated cAMP production through a Gαi-coupled pathway. Early structure-activity relationship (SAR) studies suggested that the aniline moiety of 2-PCCA is a suitable site for diverse modifications. Aimed at elucidating structural requirements in this region, we have designed and synthesized a series of analogues bearing a variety of substituents at the phenyl ring of the aniline moiety. Several compounds (e.g., 5j, 5o) showed improved or comparable potency, but have lower lipophilicity than 2-PCCA (clogP 6.19). These compounds provide the basis for further optimization to probe GPR88 in vivo functions. Computational studies confirmed the SAR trends and supported the notion that 4'-substituents on the biphenyl ring exit through a largely hydrophobic binding site to the extracellular loop.

The importance of the 6- and 7-positions of tetrahydroisoquinolines as selective antagonists for the orexin 1 receptor.

Selective antagonism of the orexin 1 (OX1) receptor has been proposed as a potential mechanism for treatment of drug addiction. We have previously reported studies on the structure-activity relationships of tetrahydroisoquinoline-based antagonists. In this report, we elucidated the respective role of the 6- and 7-substitutions by preparation of a series of either 6-substituted tetrahydroisoquinolines (with no 7-substituents) or vice versa. We found that 7-substituted tetrahydroisoquinolines showed potent antagonism of OX1, indicating that the 7-position is important for OX1 antagonism (10 c, Ke = 23.7 nM). While the 6-substituted analogs were generally inactive, several 6-amino compounds bearing ester groups showed reasonable potency (26 a, Ke = 427 nM). Further, we show evidence that suggests several compounds initially displaying insurmountable antagonism at the OX1 receptor are competitive antagonists with slow dissociation rates.

Regulation of the Apelinergic System and Its Potential in Cardiovascular Disease: Peptides and Small Molecules as Tools for Discovery.

Apelin peptides and the apelin receptor represent a relatively new therapeutic axis for the potential treatment of cardiovascular disease. Several reports suggest apelin receptor activation with apelin peptides results in cardioprotection as noted through positive ionotropy, angiogenesis, reduction of mean arterial blood pressure, and apoptosis. Considering the potential therapeutic benefit attainable through modulation of the apelinergic system, research is expanding to develop novel therapies that limit the inherent rapid degradation of endogenous apelin peptides and produce metabolically stable small molecule agonists and antagonists to more rigorously interrogate the apelin receptor system. This review details the structure-activity relationships for chemically modified apelin peptides and recent disclosures of small molecule agonists and antagonists and summarizes the peer reviewed and patented literature. Development of metabolically stable ligands of apelin receptor and their effects in various models over the coming years will hopefully lead to establishment of this receptor as a validated target for cardiovascular indications.

Effect of 1-substitution on tetrahydroisoquinolines as selective antagonists for the orexin-1 receptor.

Selective blockade of the orexin-1 receptor (OX1) has been suggested as a potential approach to drug addiction therapy because of its role in modulating the brain's reward system. We have recently reported a series of tetrahydroisoquinoline-based OX1 selective antagonists. Aimed at elucidating structure-activity relationship requirements in other regions of the molecule and further enhancing OX1 potency and selectivity, we have designed and synthesized a series of analogues bearing a variety of substituents at the 1-position of the tetrahydroisoquinoline. The results show that an optimally substituted benzyl group is required for activity at the OX1 receptor. Several compounds with improved potency and/or selectivity have been identified. When combined with structural modifications that were previously found to improve selectivity, we have identified compound 73 (RTIOX-251) with an apparent dissociation constant (Ke) of 16.1 nM at the OX1 receptor and >620-fold selectivity over the OX2 receptor. In vivo, compound 73 was shown to block the development of locomotor sensitization to cocaine in rats.

Identification of N-{[6-chloro-4-(2,6-dimethoxyphenyl)quinazolin-2-yl]carbonyl}-l-leucine (NTRC-808), a novel nonpeptide chemotype selective for the neurotensin receptor type 2.

Compounds acting via the GPCR neurotensin receptor type 2 (NTS2) display analgesic effects in relevant animal models. Using a pharmacophore model based on known NT receptor nonpeptide compounds, we screened commercial databases to identify compounds that might possess activity at NTS2 receptor sites. Modification of our screening hit to include structural features known to be recognized by NTS1 and NTS2, led to the identification of the novel NTS2 selective nonpeptide, N-{[6-chloro-4-(2,6-dimethoxyphenyl)quinazolin-2-yl]carbonyl}-l-leucine (9). This compound is a potent partial agonist in the FLIPR assay with a profile of activity similar to that of the reference NTS2 analgesic nonpeptide levocabastine (5).

Identifying structural determinants of potency for analogs of apelin-13: integration of C-terminal truncation with structure-activity.

Apelin peptides function as endogenous ligands of the APJ receptor and have been implicated in a number of important biological processes. While several apelinergic peptides have been reported, apelin-13 (Glu-Arg-Pro-Arg-Leu-Ser-His-Lys-Gly-Pro-Met-Pro-Phe) remains the most commonly studied and reported ligand of APJ. This study examines the effect of C-terminal peptide truncations and comprehensive structure-activity relationship (SAR) for a series of analogs based on apelin-13 in an attempt to develop more potent and stable analogs. C-terminal truncation studies identified apelin-13 (N-acetyl 2-11) amide (9) as a potent agonist (EC50=4.4 nM). Comprehensive SAR studies also determined that Arg-2, Leu-5, Lys-8, Met-11, were key positions for determining agonist potency, whereas the hydrophobic volume of Lys-8 was a specific determinate of activity. Plasma stability studies on the truncated 10-mer peptide 28 (EC50=33 nM) indicated the primary sites of cleavage occurred between Nle-3 and Leu-4 and also between Ala-5 and Ala-6. These new ligands represent the shortest known apelin peptides with good functional potency.

Substituted tetrahydroisoquinolines as selective antagonists for the orexin 1 receptor.

Increasing evidence implicates the orexin 1 (OX1) receptor in reward processes, suggesting OX1 antagonism could be therapeutic in drug addiction. In a program to develop an OX1 selective antagonist, we designed and synthesized a series of substituted tetrahydroisoquinolines and determined their potency in OX1 and OX2 calcium mobilization assays. Structure-activity relationship (SAR) studies revealed limited steric tolerance and a preference for electron deficiency at the 7-position. Pyridylmethyl groups were shown to be optimal for activity at the acetamide position. Computational studies resulted in a pharmacophore model and confirmed the SAR results. Compound 72 significantly attenuated the development of place preference for cocaine in rats.