Diagnostic yield of dental radiography and digital tomosynthesis for the identification of anatomic structures in cats.

Introduction: Digital tomosynthesis (DT) has emerged as a potential imaging modality for evaluating anatomic structures in veterinary medicine. This study aims to validate the diagnostic yield of DT in identifying predefined anatomic structures in feline cadaver heads, comparing it with conventional intraoral dental radiography (DR). Methods: A total of 16 feline cadaver heads were utilized to evaluate 19 predefined clinically relevant anatomic structures using both DR and DT. A semi-quantitative scoring system was employed to characterize the ability of each imaging method to identify these structures. Results: DT demonstrated a significantly higher diagnostic yield compared to DR for all evaluated anatomic structures. Orthogonal DT imaging identified 13 additional anatomic landmarks compared to a standard 10-view feline set obtained via DR. Moreover, DT achieved statistically significant higher scores for each of these landmarks, indicating improved visualization over DR. Discussion: These findings validate the utility of DT technology in reliably identifying clinically relevant anatomic structures in the cat skull. This validation serves as a foundation for further exploration of DT imaging in detecting dentoalveolar and other maxillofacial bony lesions and pathologies in cats.

Repair and remodeling of the mandibular head of the condylar process in four immature dogs.

Spontaneous repair and remodeling of the mandibular head of the condylar process is a rarely reported outcome following condylectomy. This clinical report describes the spontaneous repair and subsequent remodeling of the mandibular head of the condylar process in four immature dogs that sustained traumatic injuries, necessitating surgical intervention through arthroplasty via partial or complete condylectomy, or caudal mandibulectomy. In subsequent evaluations, it was observed that all dogs exhibited clinically functional TMJs, as evidenced by an appropriate range of motion. These findings were corroborated by the owners' reports of the patient's normal eating and drinking abilities. Conventional and cone-beam computed tomography studies demonstrated the repair and remodeling of the osseous tissues of the mandibular head of the condylar process. Histopathology was unavailable to assess the novel tissues. No evidence of intraarticular or extraarticular ankylosis or osteoarthritic changes was observed.

Anatomy of the Mandible, Temporomandibular Joint, and Dentition.

Oral behavior encompasses active movement of the oral structures. The range and quality of oral behavior is essential for establishing and maintaining health and well-being. Key oral behaviors include breathing, chewing, swallowing, and speech. Key hard tissue elements involved in oral behavior include the mandible, temporomandibular joints, and dentition. This article will discuss the anatomy and interaction of the hard tissue elements and selected soft tissue elements associated with oral behavior.

Knee orthopedics as a template for the temporomandibular joint.

Although the knee joint and temporomandibular joint (TMJ) experience similar incidence of cartilage ailments, the knee orthopedics field has greater funding and more effective end-stage treatment options. Translational research has resulted in the development of tissue-engineered products for knee cartilage repair, but the same is not true for TMJ cartilages. Here, we examine the anatomy and pathology of the joints, compare current treatments and products for cartilage afflictions, and explore ways to accelerate the TMJ field. We examine disparities, such as a 6-fold higher article count and 2,000-fold higher total joint replacement frequency in the knee compared to the TMJ, despite similarities in osteoarthritis incidence. Using knee orthopedics as a template, basic and translational research will drive the development and implementation of clinical products for the TMJ. With more funding opportunities, training programs, and federal guidance, millions of people afflicted with TMJ disorders could benefit from novel, life-changing therapeutics.

Association between degenerative temporomandibular joint disorders, vertical facial growth, and airway dimension.

BACKGROUND: The goal of this study was to determine whether preexisting degenerative temporomandibular joint (TMJ) disorders are associated with hyperdivergent facial phenotype and decreased airway dimensions. METHODS: Cone-beam computed tomography scans of adult female and male individuals, 16 years of age and older, distributed in a case group defined as those with degenerative temporomandibular joint disorder (dTMJD; n = 31) or controls with normal TMJ findings (n = 242) were included. Odds ratios were calculated based on facial type and gender. Analysis of variance was used to compare the airway volume and cross section and mandibular measurements between the groups. RESULTS: Condylar, ramus, and mandibular heights were significantly smaller in the case group compared with the control group. The odds of having a long face subject was significantly higher (P < 0.00001) in the dTMJD group than in the control group with 81% of the dTMJD subjects versus 11% of the control group having long vertical facial dimensions. The smallest cross-sectional area of the airway of the dTMJD group was significantly narrower (P < 0.0361) compared with the controls. Within the control group, ramus height and mandibular alveolar housing for central incisors were significantly smaller (P < 0.0001; P < 0.007) in the long face subjects. CONCLUSIONS: The study shows that a long facial type is associated with findings of degenerative TMJ disorders and related condylar growth disturbances. These degenerative and growth changes may contribute to specific skeletal and dentofacial adaptations resulting in smaller condylar process, mandibular ramus, and body height; thinner alveolar housing at the lower incisor region; and smaller cross-sectional area of the airway.

The Diagnostic Yield of Dental Radiography and Cone-Beam Computed Tomography for the Identification of Dentoalveolar Lesions in Cats.

The objective of this study was to evaluate the diagnostic yield of dental radiography (DR) and 3 cone-beam computed tomography (CBCT) software modules for the identification of 32 pre-defined dentoalveolar lesions in cats. For 5 feline cadaver heads and 22 client-owned cats admitted for evaluation and treatment of dental disease, 32 predefined dentoalveolar lesions were evaluated separately and scored by use of dental radiography and 3 CBCT software modules [multiplanar reconstructions (MPR), tridimensional (3-D) rendering, and reconstructed panoramic views]. A qualitative scoring system was used. Dentoalveolar lesions were grouped into 14 categories for statistical analysis. Point of reference for presence or absence of a dentoalveolar lesion was determined as the method that could be used to clearly identify the disorder as being present. Accuracy, sensitivity, specificity, and positive and negative predictive values were calculated with the McNemar χ2 test of marginal homogeneity of paired data. When all 3 CBCT software modules were used in combination, the diagnostic yield of CBCT was significantly higher than that of dental radiography for 4 of 14 categories (missing teeth, horizontal bone loss, loss of tooth integrity, feline resorptive lesions), and higher, although not significantly so, for 9 categories (supernumerary teeth, supernumerary roots, abnormally shaped roots, vertical bone loss, buccal bone expansion, periapical disease, inflammatory root resorption, and external replacement root resorption). In conclusion, we found that CBCT provided more clinically relevant detailed information as compared to dental radiography. Therefore, CBCT should be considered better suited for use in diagnosing dentoalveolar lesions in cats.

Diagnostic Yield of Dental Radiography and Cone-Beam Computed Tomography for the Identification of Anatomic Structures in Cats.

The objective of this study was to evaluate the diagnostic yield of dental radiography (DR) and 3 cone-beam computed tomography (CBCT) methods for the identification of predefined anatomic structures in cats. For 5 feline cadaver heads and 22 client-owned cats admitted for evaluation and treatment of dental disease, a total of 22 predefined anatomic structures were evaluated separately by use of the DR method and 3 CBCT software modules [multiplanar reconstructions (MPR), tridimensional (3-D) rendering, and reconstructed panoramic views (Pano)]. A semi quantitative scoring system was used, and mean scores were calculated for each anatomic structure and imaging method. The Friedman test was used to evaluate values for significant differences in diagnostic yield. For values that were significant the Wilcoxon signed rank test was used with the Bonferroni-Holm multiple comparison adjustment to determine significant differences among each of the possible pairs of diagnostic methods. Differences of diagnostic yield among the DR and 3 CBCT methods were significant for 17 of 22 anatomic structures. For these structures, DR scores were significantly higher than scores for Pano views for 2 of 17 structures, but DR scores were significantly lower than scores for Pano views for 6 anatomic structures, tridimensional rendering for 10 anatomic structures, and MPR for 17 anatomic structures. In conclusion, it was found that CBCT methods were better suited than DR for the identification of anatomic structures in cats. Results of this study can serve as a basis for CBCT evaluation of dentoalveolar and other maxillofacial bony lesions in cats.

Tissue engineering toward temporomandibular joint disc regeneration.

Treatments for temporomandibular joint (TMJ) disc thinning and perforation, conditions prevalent in TMJ pathologies, are palliative but not reparative. To address this, scaffold-free tissue-engineered implants were created using allogeneic, passaged costal chondrocytes. A combination of compressive and bioactive stimulation regimens produced implants with mechanical properties akin to those of the native disc. Efficacy in repairing disc thinning was examined in minipigs. Compared to empty controls, treatment with tissue-engineered implants restored disc integrity by inducing 4.4 times more complete defect closure, formed 3.4-fold stiffer repair tissue, and promoted 3.2-fold stiffer intralaminar fusion. The osteoarthritis score (indicative of degenerative changes) of the untreated group was 3.0-fold of the implant-treated group. This tissue engineering strategy paves the way for developing tissue-engineered implants as clinical treatments for TMJ disc thinning.

Evaluation of the diagnostic yield of dental radiography and cone-beam computed tomography for the identification of anatomic landmarks in small to medium-sized brachycephalic dogs.

OBJECTIVE To evaluate the diagnostic yield of dental radiography (Rad method) and 3 cone-beam CT (CBCT) methods for the identification of predefined anatomic landmarks in brachycephalic dogs. ANIMALS 19 client-owned brachycephalic dogs admitted for evaluation and treatment of dental disease. PROCEDURES 26 predefined anatomic landmarks were evaluated separately by use of the RAD method and 3 CBCT software modules (serial CBCT slices and custom cross sections, tridimensional rendering, and reconstructed panoramic views). A semiquantitative scoring system was used, and mean scores were calculated for each anatomic landmark and imaging method. The Friedman test was used to evaluate values for significant differences in diagnostic yield. For values that were significant, the Wilcoxon signed rank test was used with the Bonferroni-Holm multiple comparison adjustment to determine significant differences among each of the 6 possible pairs of diagnostic methods. RESULTS Differences of diagnostic yield among the Rad and 3 CBCT methods were significant for 19 of 26 anatomic landmarks. For these landmarks, Rad scores were significantly higher than scores for reconstructed panoramic views for 4 of 19 anatomic landmarks, but Rad scores were significantly lower than scores for reconstructed panoramic views for 8 anatomic landmarks, tridimensional rendering for 18 anatomic landmarks, and serial CBCT slices and custom cross sections for all 19 anatomic landmarks. CONCLUSIONS AND CLINICAL RELEVANCE CBCT methods were better suited than dental radiography for the identification of anatomic landmarks in brachycephalic dogs. Results of this study can serve as a basis for CBCT evaluation of dental disorders in brachycephalic dogs.

Evaluation of the diagnostic yield of dental radiography and cone-beam computed tomography for the identification of dental disorders in small to medium-sized brachycephalic dogs.

OBJECTIVE To evaluate the diagnostic yield of dental radiography (Rad method) and cone-beam CT (CBCT) methods for the identification of 31 predefined dental disorders in brachycephalic dogs. ANIMALS 19 client-owned brachycephalic dogs admitted for evaluation and treatment of dental disease. PROCEDURES 31 predefined dental disorders were evaluated separately and scored by use of dental radiography and 3 CBCT software modules (serial CBCT slices and custom cross sections, tridimensional rendering, and reconstructed panoramic views). A qualitative scoring system was used. Dental disorders were grouped into 10 categories for statistical analysis. Point of reference for presence or absence of a dental disorder was determined as the method that could be used to clearly identify the disorder as being present. Accuracy, sensitivity, specificity, and positive and negative predictive values were calculated with the McNemar χ2 test of marginal homogeneity of paired data. RESULTS When all 3 CBCT methods were used in combination, the diagnostic yield of CBCT was significantly higher than that of dental radiography for 4 of 10 categories (abnormal eruption, abnormally shaped roots, periodontitis, and tooth resorption) and higher, although not significantly so, for all categories, except for 1 (loss of tooth integrity). CONCLUSIONS AND CLINICAL RELEVANCE CBCT provided more detailed information than did dental radiography. Therefore, CBCT would be better suited for use in diagnosing dental disorders in brachycephalic dogs.

The Yucatan Minipig Temporomandibular Joint Disc Structure-Function Relationships Support Its Suitability for Human Comparative Studies.

Frequent involvement of the disc in temporomandibular joint (TMJ) disorders warrants attempts to tissue engineer TMJ disc replacements. Physiologically, a great degree of similarity is seen between humans and farm pigs (FPs), but the pig's rapid growth confers a significant challenge for in vivo experiments. Minipigs have a slower growth rate and are smaller than FPs, but minipig TMJ discs have yet to be fully characterized. The objective of this study was to determine the suitability of the minipig for TMJ studies by extensive structural and functional characterization. The properties of minipig TMJ discs closely reproduced previously reported morphological, biochemical, and biomechanical values of human and FP discs. The width/length dimension ratio of the minipig TMJ disc was 1.95 (1.69 for human and 1.94 for FP). The biochemical evaluation revealed, on average per wet weight, 24.3% collagen (22.8% for human and 24.9% for FP); 0.8% glycosaminoglycan (GAG; 0.5% for human and 0.4% for FP); and 0.03% DNA (0.008% for human and 0.02% for FP). Biomechanical testing revealed, on average, compressive relaxation modulus of 50 kPa (37 kPa for human and 32 kPa for FP), compressive instantaneous modulus of 1121 kPa (1315 kPa for human and 1134 kPa for FP), and coefficient of viscosity of 13 MPa·s (9 MPa·s for human and 3 MPa·s for FP) at 20% strain. These properties also varied topographically in accordance to those of human and FP TMJ discs. Anisotropy, quantified by bidirectional tensile testing and histology, again was analogous among minipig, human, and FP TMJ discs. The minipig TMJ's ginglymoarthrodial nature was verified through cone beam computer tomography. Collectively, the similarities between minipig and human TMJ discs support the use of minipig as a relevant model for TMJ research; considering the practical advantages conferred by its growth rate and size, the minipig may be a preferred model over FP.

Clinical Application of Cone Beam Computed Tomography of the Rabbit Head: Part 2-Dental Disease.

Domestic rabbits are increasing in popularity as household pets; therefore, veterinarians need to be familiar with the most common diseases afflicting rabbits including dental disease. Current diagnostic approaches include gross oral examination, endoscopic oral examination, skull radiography, and computed tomography (CT). Cone beam computed tomography (CBCT), a new oral and maxillofacial imaging modality that has the capability to produce high-resolution images, has not yet been described for use in evaluating dental disease in rabbits. A total of 15 client-owned rabbits had CBCT, oral examination, dental charting, and dental treatment performed under general anesthesia. Images were evaluated using transverse and custom multiplanar (MPR), 3D, and panoramic reconstructed images. The CBCT findings were grouped into abnormalities that could be detected on conscious oral examination vs. abnormalities that could not be detected by conscious oral examination. Potential associations between the two categories were examined by pairwise Fisher's exact test with statistical significance determined by P < 0.05. The most common findings identified on CBCT images were periodontal ligament space widening (14/15), premolar and molar malocclusion (13/15), apical elongation (13/15), coronal elongation (12/15), inflammatory tooth resorption (12/15), periapical lucency (11/15), moth-eaten pattern of osteolysis of the alveolar bone (9/15), ventral mandibular border contour changes (9/15), and missing teeth (8/15). Of the CBCT abnormalities likely to be observed on oral examination, coronal elongation (detectable on oral examination) was significantly associated with apical elongation (P = 0.029). There were no other significant associations between CBCT findings that are also clinically detectable and CBCT findings that are not be detectable on oral examination. This suggests that pathology often exists that is not apparent upon oral examination. This study establishes the common CBCT findings associated with dental disease in rabbits and demonstrates the feasibility of this technology to diagnose and plan treatment in dental disorders in this species.

Clinical Application of Cone-Beam Computed Tomography of the Rabbit Head: Part 1 - Normal Dentition.

Domestic rabbits (Oryctolagus cuniculus) are increasingly popular as household pets; therefore, veterinarians need to be familiar with the most common diseases afflicting rabbits including dental diseases. Diagnostic approaches for dental disease include gross oral examination, endoscopic oral examination, skull radiography, and computed tomography (CT). CT overcomes many limitations of standard radiography by permitting cross-sectional images of the rabbit head in multiple planes without superimposition of anatomic structures. Cone-beam CT (CBCT) is an oral and maxillofacial imaging modality that produces high-resolution images. The objective of this study was to describe and compare the normal anatomic features of the dentition and surrounding maxillofacial structures in healthy rabbits on CBCT and conventional CT. Ten New Zealand white rabbit cadaver heads were scanned using CBCT and conventional CT. Images were evaluated using Anatomage Invivo 5 software. The maxillofacial anatomy was labeled on CBCT images, and the mean lengths and widths of the teeth were determined. The visibility of relevant dental and anatomic features (pulp cavity, germinal center, tooth outline, periodontal ligament) were scored and compared between conventional CT and CBCT. The thinnest teeth were the maxillary second incisor teeth at 1.29 ± 0.26 mm and the maxillary third molar teeth at 1.04 ± 0.10 mm. In general, it was found that CBCT was superior to conventional CT when imaging the dentition. Importantly, the periodontal ligament was significantly (P < 0.01) more visible on CBCT than on conventional CT. Ability to see the periodontal ligament with such detail may allow earlier detection and treatment of periodontal disease in rabbits. This study is the first of its kind and shows the feasibility and yield of CBCT when evaluating the maxillofacial features and dentition in rabbits.

CT & CBCT imaging: assessment of the orbits.

The orbits can be visualized easily on routine or customized protocols for computed tomography (CT) or cone beam CT (CBCT) scans. Detailed orbital investigations are best performed with 3-dimensional imaging methods. CT scans are preferred for visualizing the osseous orbital anatomy and fissures while magnetic resonance imaging is preferred for evaluating tumors and inflammation. CBCT provides high-resolution anatomic data of the sinonasal spaces, airway, soft tissue surfaces, and bones but does not provide much detail within the soft tissues. This article discusses CBCT imaging of the orbits, osseous anatomy of the orbits, and CBCT investigation of selected orbital pathosis.

Three-dimensional airway evaluation in 387 subjects from one university orthodontic clinic using cone beam computed tomography.

OBJECTIVE: To determine the linear, volumetric, and cross-sectional area measurements in a large sample of subjects seeking treatment in a university clinic of orthodontics. MATERIALS AND METHODS: Cone-beam computed tomography (CBCT) scans from 387 patients were analyzed retrospectively. All scans were loaded into the 3dMDvultus program (Atlanta, Ga) for airway analysis using automated segmentation. Gender, age, height, weight, airway length, volume, and area of maximum constriction were collected. RESULTS: The rostrocaudal length of the airway increased with age until the age of 15 years in female subjects but continued to increase in male subjects and ranged from 44 to 88 mm over the period of 8 to 18 years of age with the gender data combined. The volume of the airway increased through the entire 11-year age range from 2000 mm(3) to 27,000 mm(3). The rate of airway volume increased at a slower rate in female than in male subjects. The smallest cross-sectional area increased with age ranging from 20 to 250 mm(2) but at a slower rate with female subjects, while male subjects demonstrated a more exponential increase after the age of 13 years. CONCLUSIONS: The human airway increases in length and volume during a rapid period of craniofacial growth in patients between the ages of 8 and 18 years, and the site of maximum cross-sectional area constriction can vary.

Cone beam computed tomography: craniofacial and airway analysis.

Imaging plays a role in the anatomic assessment of the airway and adjacent structures. This article discusses the use of 3-dimensional (3D) imaging (cone beam computed tomography [CBCT]) to evaluate the airway and selected regional anatomic variables that may contribute to obstructive sleep-disordered breathing (OSDB) in patients. CBCT technology uses a cone-shaped x-ray beam with a special image intensifier and a solid-state sensor or an amorphous silicon plate for capturing the image. Incorporation of 3D imaging into daily practice will allow practitioners to readily evaluate and screen patients for phenotypes associated with OSDB.

Consistency and precision of landmark identification in three-dimensional cone beam computed tomography scans.

The purpose of this study was to quantify the consistency and precision of locating three-dimensional (3D) anatomic landmarks. The hypotheses tested are that these landmarks have characteristic and variable error patterns associated with their type and location. The consistency and precision of nine orthodontists identifying 32 landmarks of 19 patients were quantified. The cone beam computed tomography (CBCT) data were acquired using a Hitachi CB MercuRay system. Prior to the study, all examiners were calibrated with respect to the definitions of the landmarks and on the use of the software program (Dolphin) for identifying the landmarks. In addition, a reference guide was provided that had the definitions and sample images of the landmarks. Data were collected in spreadsheets as x, y, and z co-ordinates and statistically analysed to determine the mean and standard deviation (SD). The mean location for a given landmark on a given patient served as the reference point. The mean of the distances from the reference point was used as the consistency, while the SD of this mean was used as a measure of precision. The error in the x, y, and z planes was calculated in order to determine the specific characteristics of each landmark. The consistency in landmark location and precision did not differ significantly among the nine examiners. Sella turcica was the most consistently (0.50 mm) and most precisely (0.23 mm) identified anatomic landmark. The most inconsistent landmark was porion-right (2.72 mm) and the most imprecise landmark was orbitale-right (1.81 mm). Due to the lack of even distribution of the errors, careful use of these landmarks for analysis purposes is needed.

Operational principles for cone-beam computed tomography.

BACKGROUND: Cone-beam computed tomography (CBCT) was introduced into the U.S. market in 2001. Today, there are more than 3,000 installed units in the United States. There are numerous CBCT manufacturers and types of units. To produce the best imaging results, clinicians need to be knowledgeable about the CBCT unit, the clinical issue being investigated and how to optimize the unit's operational parameters. The author identifies the variables that should be considered for each imaging session and addresses the building blocks required to design the appropriate imaging strategy. The remaining articles in this supplement address imaging for orthodontics, the investigation and localization of impacted teeth and implant planning, and customized imaging protocols designed to solve the clinical issues being presented. METHODS: The author addresses CBCT from an operational point of view. An ideal imaging examination answers the clinical question while maintaining an acceptable radiation dose and cost. The quality and value of each imaging study is proportional to the protocol being used. The author also addresses imaging protocol variables (raw data frames, scan time, voxel size, field of view and milliampere settings) and their effects on the final image quality and radiation dose, as well as CBCT accuracy and the radiation dose. RESULTS: CBCT can provide image volumes of the maxillofacial region and can be useful in clinical dentistry. CONCLUSION: CBCT has been shown to be a precise imaging modality and is a valuable tool for use in dental applications. CLINICAL IMPLICATIONS: CBCT can be used for diagnosis and treatment planning for all of the dental specialties.

The role of cone-beam computed tomography in the planning and placement of implants.

BACKGROUND: Three-dimensional imaging, particularly cone-beam computed tomography (CBCT), has made significant contributions to the planning and placement of implants to replace missing teeth. The accuracy of CBCT data can be used to fabricate a surgical guide that transfers the implant planning information to the surgical site to facilitate implant placement. The authors describe a method for applying CBCT data to aid in the planning and placement of implants. METHODS: The authors outline clinical goals for implant planning and placement and describe the anatomical and prosthetic requirements for successful implant placement. They also present imaging solutions, including CBCT scanning and software analysis, to the clinical goals. CONCLUSIONS: Virtual implant planning using CBCT data allows the clinicians to create and visualize the end result before initiating treatment. CBCT scans are accurate and cost effective and can be used to improve communication and coordination of a multidisciplinary team to achieve the desired clinical outcome. Virtual planning allows clinicians to investigate multiple treatment scenarios until the optimum treatment plan is attained. The optimized virtual plan may be converted through modeling to create a surgical guide for clinical implementation. CLINICAL IMPLICATIONS: The precise planning and delivery of implants to replace missing teeth can avert recognized and concealed treatment problems. This process aids the clinician and benefits the patient.

Cone beam CT--anatomic assessment and legal issues: the new standards of care.

Until the recent introduction of cone beam computed tomography scanners, standard 2-D imaging provided a moderate contribution to overall treatment planning when considering the diagnostic potential, costs of study and risks to the patient. Cone beam computed tomography-dedicated maxillofacial imaging scanners provide broader imaging tools for anatomic assessment and have become widely available. This article discusses the uses and benefits of 3-D imaging, as well as the impact on the standard of care. Many phases of patient care involve imaging to assist with diagnosis, treatment planning, risk assessment and treatment. Techniques employing X-rays, visible light, ultrasound, lasers and magnetic fields have been used in medicine and dentistry to create images. All forms of imaging require a coupled system of emitters and sensors. For example, a cephalometric image is produced using an X-ray emitter and film sensor. Imaging systems can be categorized in many different ways based upon emitter or output type (examples; film-based, digital, 2-D and 3-D images). The resultant images can be used to evaluate the anatomy of interest, including surface and subsurface. The ultimate quest of all forms of imaging is to reveal the anatomic truth; that is, to portray the anatomy as it exists in nature. Thoughtful clinical application of image acquisition requires matching the uses and limitations of the available imaging choices to achieve the desired diagnostic information (imaging goal) while keeping the risks and costs to the patient as low as possible. Imaging data must provide a benefit at an acceptable cost and risk. Two-dimensional representation of 3-D anatomies creates images that have poor spatial accuracy, are static in space and time, and contain information voids. These 2-D measurements have propagated legacy databases of inaccurate morphometric measurements. Current development in imaging technology for dentistry includes digital imaging and improved sensor technology. Multidimensional anatomical reconstruction can be performed through software applications. The ultimate reward of technological imaging advancements is the 3-D representations (digital volume) of anatomy as it exists in nature (anatomic truth). Analysis of the accurate digital volume can provide clinically relevant spatial information or data. Visualization and analysis of 3-D information can benefit a dental practice by providing data that will improve diagnosis, risk assessment, treatment outcome and treatment efficiency, and reduce treatment complications. This article discusses the uses and benefits of 3-D imaging (cone beam CT, CBCT) for diagnosis, treatment planning and the legal issues affecting the standard of care, as well as offering risk management tips and use guidance.