Sample Size and Geometric Morphometrics Methodology Impact the Evaluation of Morphological Variation.

Geometric morphometrics has had a profound impact on our understanding of morphological evolution. However, factors such as sample size and the views and elements selected for two-dimensional geometric morphometric (2DGM) analyses, which are often dictated by specimen availability and time rather than study design, may affect the outcomes of those analyses. Leveraging large intraspecific sample sizes (n > 70) for two bat species, Lasiurus borealis and Nycticeius humeralis, we evaluate the impact of sample size on calculations of mean shape, shape variance, and centroid size. Additionally, we assessed the concordance of multiple skull 2D views with one another and characterized morphological variation in skull shape in L. borealis and N. humeralis, as well as a closely related species, Lasiurus seminolus. Given that L. seminolus is a morphologically cryptic species with L. borealis, we assessed whether differences in skull shape and in 2DGM approach would allow species discrimination. We found that reducing sample size impacted mean shape and increased shape variance, that shape differences were not consistent across views or skull elements, and that trends shown by the views and elements were not all strongly associated with one another. Further, we found that L. borealis and L. seminolus were statistically different in shape using 2DGM in all views and elements. These results underscore the importance of selecting appropriate sample sizes, 2D views, and elements based on the hypothesis being tested. While there is likely not a generalizable sample size or 2D view that can be employed given the wide variety of research questions and systems evaluated using 2DGM, a generalizable solution to issues with 2DGM presented here is to run preliminary analyses using multiple views, elements, and sample sizes, thus ensuring robust conclusions.

A morfometria geométrica teve um impacto profundo na compreensão da evolução morfológica. No entanto, fatores como o tamanho amostral, vista anatômica e os elementos selecionados para as análises de morfometria geométricas bidimensionais (MG2D), que geralmente são determinados pela disponibilidade de espécimes e de tempo ao invés do design de estudo, podem afetar os resultados dessas análises. Utilizando grandes tamanhos de amostra intraespecífica (n > 70) em duas espécies de morcegos, Lasiurus borealis e Nycticeius humeralis, avaliamos o impacto do tamanho amostral nos cálculos da média e da variância da forma, e do tamanho do centroide. Adicionalmente, avaliamos a concordância entre vários planos 2D do crânio e caracterizamos a variação morfológica da forma cranial em L. borealis e N. humeralis, bem como em uma outra espécie proximamente relacionada, Lasiurus seminolus. Dado que L. seminolus é uma espécie morfologicamente críptica em relação a L. borealis, avaliamos se as diferenças no formato do crânio e na abordagem de MG2D utilizada permitiriam discriminar as espécies. Descobrimos que a redução do tamanho da amostra impactou o formato médio e aumentou a variância da forma, que as diferenças na forma não foram consistentes entre as vistas ou elementos cranianos, e que as tendências apresentadas pelos planos anatômicos e pelos elementos não foram fortemente associadas umas às outras. Adicionalmente, constatamos que as formas de L. borealis e L. seminolus, quantificadas por MG2D, foram estatisticamente diferentes em todas as vistas e elementos. Esses resultados enfatizam a importância em selecionar tamanhos amostrais, vistas 2D e elementos anatômicos adequados, com base na hipótese testada. Devido à grande diversidade de perguntas de pesquisa e de sistemas avaliados com MG2D, provavelmente não exista um tamanho amostral ou vista 2D que possam ser aplicados de forma generalizada. No entanto, uma solução geral para os problemas envolvendo MG2D aqui apresentados é conduzir análises preliminares utilizando várias vistas anatômicas, elementos e tamanhos amostrais, garantindo assim conclusões mais robustas.

A New Era of Morphological Investigations: Reviewing Methods for Comparative Anatomical Studies.

The increased use of imaging technology in biological research has drastically altered morphological studies in recent decades and allowed for the preservation of important collection specimens alongside detailed visualization of bony and soft-tissue structures. Despite the benefits associated with these newer imaging techniques, there remains a need for more "traditional" methods of morphological examination in many comparative studies. In this paper, we describe the costs and benefits of the various methods of visualizing, examining, and comparing morphological structures. There are significant differences not only in the costs associated with these different methods (monetary, time, equipment, and software), but also in the degree to which specimens are destroyed. We argue not for any one particular method over another in morphological studies, but instead suggest a combination of methods is useful not only for breadth of visualization, but also for the financial and time constraints often imposed on early-career research scientists.

Divergent Genital Morphologies and Female-Male Covariation in Watersnakes.

Genital evolution can be driven by diverse selective pressures. Across taxa we see evidence of covariation between males and females, as well as divergent genital morphologies between closely related species. Quantitative analyses of morphological changes in coevolving male and female genitalia have not yet been shown in vertebrates. This study uses 2D and 3D geometric morphometrics to quantitatively compare the complex shapes of vaginal pouches and hemipenes across three species of watersnakes (the sister taxa Nerodia fasciata, N. sipedon, and a close relative N. rhombifer) to address the relationship between genital morphology and divergence time in a system where sexual conflict may have driven sexually antagonistic coevolution of genital traits. Our pairwise comparisons of shape differences across species show that the sister species have male and female genitalia that are significantly different from each other, but more similar to each other than to N. rhombifer. We also determine that the main axes of shape variation are the same for males and females, with changes that relate to deeper bilobation of the vaginal pouch and hemipenes. In males, the protrusion of the region of spines at the base of the hemipene trades off with the degree of bilobation, suggesting amelioration of sexual conflict, perhaps driven by changes in the relative size of the entrance of the vaginal pouch that could have made spines less effective.

An Injured Psittacosaurus (Dinosauria: Ceratopsia) From the Yixian Formation (Liaoning, China): Implications for Psittacosaurus Biology.

We describe a Psittacosaurus specimen from the Lujiatun beds of the Yixian Formation in Liaoning, China with an abnormality on its left fibula. Although a large number of Psittacosaurus specimens are known, only a single example of a pathologic Psittacosaurus has been previously noted. The specific pathology in the current specimen is believed to be a healed fibular fracture as assessed through a combination of gross morphology, microcomputed tomography (microCT), and histology data. The fracture can be identified using microCT, but the degree of remodeling and the stage of fracture repair are best determined histologically. The fracture callus is made up of radially oriented spokes of woven bone in a cartilage matrix and the original cortical bone prior to the fracture has been largely eroded. A transverse histologic section taken at the level of the fracture shows the displacement of the proximal and distal parts of the fibula. The Psittacosaurus appears to have survived the break considering the deposition of circumferential non-pathologic bone at the periosteal surface outside of the callus. The combination of gross morphological description, microCT data, and histologic data allowed for a full diagnosis of the abnormality. While some previous authors have preferred gross morphological description above other methods for assessing paleopathologies, it is evident based on this specimen that an amalgam of techniques provides greater clarity to paleopathology diagnoses. Although this Psittacosaurus lived in an environment with many predators, it was able to survive with a fracture on its hindlimb, which undoubtedly would have impacted its locomotion. Anat Rec, 299:897-906, 2016. © 2016 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.