The Causes and Consequences of Drifting Expectations.

Awaiting news of uncertain outcomes is distressing because the news might be disappointing. To prevent such disappointments, people often "brace for the worst," pessimistically lowering expectations before news arrives to decrease the possibility of surprising disappointment (a negative prediction error, or PE). Computational decision-making research commonly assumes that expectations do not drift within trials, yet it is unclear whether expectations pessimistically drift in real-world, high-stakes settings, what factors influence expectation drift, and whether it effectively buffers emotional responses to goal-relevant outcomes. Moreover, individuals learn from PEs to accurately anticipate future outcomes, but it is unknown whether expectation drift also impedes PE-based learning. In a sample of students awaiting exam grades (N = 625), we found that expectations often drift and tend to drift pessimistically. We demonstrate that bracing is preferentially modulated by uncertainty; it transiently buffers the initial emotional impact of negative PEs but impairs PE-based learning, counterintuitively sustaining uncertainty into the future.

Familism, family cohesion, and health-related quality of life in Hispanic prostate cancer survivors.

BACKGROUND: Familism, the cultural value that emphasizes feelings of loyalty and dedication to one's family, has been related to both positive and negative outcomes in Hispanic cancer survivors. One potential source of observed inconsistencies may be limited attention to the family environment, as familism may be protective in a cohesive family whereas it can exacerbate distress in a conflictive family. PURPOSE: The current study explored the associations of familism with general and disease-specific health-related quality of life (HRQoL) in Hispanic men who completed prostate cancer (PC) treatment, and whether family cohesion may help explain these relationships. METHODS: Hispanic men treated for localized PC (e.g., radiation, surgery) were enrolled in a randomized controlled stress management trial and assessed prior to randomization. Familism (familial obligation) was assessed using Sabogal's Familism Scale and family cohesion was measured using the Family Environment Scale (ranging from high to low). The sexual, urinary incontinence, and urinary obstructive/irritative domains of the Expanded Prostate Cancer Index Composite - Short Form measured disease-specific HRQoL. The physical, emotional, and functional well-being subscales of the Functional Assessment of Cancer Therapy - General captured general HRQoL. Hierarchical linear regression and the SPSS PROCESS macro were used to conduct moderation analyses, while controlling for relevant covariates. RESULTS: Participants were 202 older men on average 65.7 years of age (SD = 8.0) who had been diagnosed with PC an average of 22 months prior to enrollment. Familism was not directly associated with general and disease-specific HRQoL. Moderation analyses revealed that greater familism was related to poorer urinary functioning in the incontinence (p = .03) and irritative/obstructive domains (p = .01), and lower emotional well-being (p = .02), particularly when family cohesion was low. CONCLUSIONS: These findings underscore the importance of considering contextual factors, such as family cohesion, in understanding the influence of familism on general and disease-specific HRQoL among Hispanic PC patients. The combined influence of familism and family cohesion predicts clinically meaningful differences in urinary functioning and emotional well-being during the posttreatment phase. Culturally sensitive psychosocial interventions to boost family cohesion and leverage the positive impact of familistic attitudes are needed to enhance HRQoL outcomes in this population.

Adding to the neuroimmune network model: A commentary on Nusslock et al. (2024).

Work by many groups demonstrate links between peripheral markers of inflammation and symptoms of depression. Here, Nusslock and colleagues present an update to their neuroimmune network model to incorporate a developmental lens. They propose that specific neural circuits may be responsible for causing heightened inflammation. One principal circuit includes the amygdala and prefrontal cortex and is proposed to be involved in threat detection. Thus, heightened threat sensitivity resulting from early life stress is suggested to cause increases in inflammatory signaling. Second, the authors suggest that reward circuits, including the striatum, may be targets of increased inflammation leading to symptoms of anhedonia. In this commentary, I add context to the model proposed by Nusslock et al., suggesting that taking a learning perspective and considering additional circuits, including the hippocampus and midline structures may be necessary to more fully account for the phenomena described by the authors.

Depression is associated with blunted affective responses to naturalistic reward prediction errors.

BACKGROUND: Depression is characterized by abnormalities in emotional processing, but the specific drivers of such emotional abnormalities are unknown. Computational work indicates that both surprising outcomes (prediction errors; PEs) and outcomes (values) themselves drive emotional responses, but neither has been consistently linked to affective disturbances in depression. As a result, the computational mechanisms driving emotional abnormalities in depression remain unknown. METHODS: Here, in 687 individuals, one-third of whom qualify as depressed via a standard self-report measure (the PHQ-9), we use high-stakes, naturalistic events - the reveal of midterm exam grades - to test whether individuals with heightened depression display a specific reduction in emotional response to positive PEs. RESULTS: Using Bayesian mixed effects models, we find that individuals with heightened depression do not affectively benefit from surprising, good outcomes - that is, they display reduced affective responses to positive PEs. These results were highly specific: effects were not observed to negative PEs, value signals (grades), and were not related to generalized anxiety. This suggests that the computational drivers of abnormalities in emotion in depression may be specifically due to positive PE-based emotional responding. CONCLUSIONS: Affective abnormalities are core depression symptoms, but the computational mechanisms underlying such differences are unknown. This work suggests that blunted affective reactions to positive PEs are likely mechanistic drivers of emotional dysregulation in depression.

The affective benefits of real-world exploration during the COVID-19 pandemic.

Increasing daily exploration is linked to improvements in affective well-being. However, COVID-19 elevated uncertainty when leaving the home, altering the risk-reward of balance of geospatial novelty. To this end, we simultaneously collected real-world geospatial tracking and experience sampling of emotion, prior to and during the first year of the pandemic in 630 individuals. COVID-19 reduced exploration and subjective well-being. Yet, despite the health risks of exploring during the pandemic, the days of highest affective well-being were those when individuals explored the most. However, this was not true for everyone: during the first months of the pandemic, at the height of the uncertainty surrounding the transmissibility and prognosis of a COVID-19 infection, more anxious individuals experienced no affective benefit to leaving home. Taken together, real-world exploration improved well-being regardless of the presence of real-world threat, but anxiety mitigated these benefits. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2024 APA, all rights reserved).

Greater perceived stress management skills and heightened brain metabolic activity in cortical and subcortical stress processing regions in metastatic breast cancer patients.

PURPOSE: Emotional distress and adversity can contribute to negative health outcomes in women with breast cancer. Individual differences in perceived stress management skills such as cognitive reframing and relaxation for coping with adversity have been shown to predict less distress and better psychological and physiological adaptation. Prior work shows that more distressed breast cancer patients reveal less metabolic activity in brain regions such as the insula, thalamus, ventromedial and lateral prefrontal cortices. This led us to pose the hypothesis that breast cancer patients with greater stress management skills (e.g., ability to reframe stressors and use relaxation) may conversely show greater activation in these brain regions and thereby identify brain activity that may be modifiable through stress management interventions. The main objective of this study was to examine the association of perceived stress management skill efficacy with the metabolism of 9 key stress-implicated brain regions in women diagnosed with metastatic breast cancer. METHODS: Sixty women (mean age 59.86 ± 10.04) with a diagnosis of mBC underwent 18F-fluorodeoxyglucose positron emission tomography. Perceived stress management skill efficacy was assessed with the Measure of Current Status Scale. RESULTS: Greater perceived stress management skill efficacy related significantly to higher metabolic activity in the insula, thalamus, ventromedial and lateral prefrontal cortices, and basal ganglia; this network of regions overlaps with those previously shown to be under-activated with greater level of distress in this same sample of metastatic breast cancer patients. CONCLUSION: This is the first study to demonstrate in metastatic cancer patients that greater perceptions of stress management skill efficacy are associated with metabolic activity in key brain regions and paves the way for future studies tracking neural mechanisms sensitive to change following stress management interventions for this population.

Negative interpretation bias connects to real-world daily affect: A multistudy approach.

Negative interpretation bias, the tendency to appraise ambiguous stimuli as threatening, shapes our emotional lives. Various laboratory tasks, which differ in stimuli features and task procedures, can quantify negative interpretation bias. However, it is unknown whether these tasks globally predict individual differences in real-world negative (NA) and positive (PA) affect. Across two studies, we tested whether different lab-based negative interpretation bias tasks predict daily NA and PA, measured via mobile phone across months. To quantify negative interpretation bias, Study 1 (N = 69) used a verbal, self-referential task whereas Study 2 (N = 110) used a perceptual, emotional image task with faces and scenes. Across tasks, negative interpretation bias was linked to heightened daily NA. However, only negative interpretation bias in response to ambiguous faces was related to decreased daily PA. These results illustrate the ecological validity of negative interpretation bias tasks and highlight converging and unique relationships between distinct tasks and naturalistic emotion. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2023 APA, all rights reserved).

Individual differences in naturalistic learning link negative emotionality to the development of anxiety.

Organisms learn from prediction errors (PEs) to predict the future. Laboratory studies using small financial outcomes find that humans use PEs to update expectations and link individual differences in PE-based learning to internalizing disorders. Because of the low-stakes outcomes in most tasks, it is unclear whether PE learning emerges in naturalistic, high-stakes contexts and whether individual differences in PE learning predict psychopathology risk. Using experience sampling to assess 625 college students' expected exam grades, we found evidence of PE-based learning and a general tendency to discount negative PEs, an "optimism bias." However, individuals with elevated negative emotionality, a personality trait linked to the development of anxiety disorders, displayed a global pessimism and learning differences that impeded accurate expectations and predicted future anxiety symptoms. A sensitivity to PEs combined with an aversion to negative PEs may result in a pessimistic and inaccurate model of the world, leading to anxiety.

Identifying real-world affective correlates of cognitive risk factors for internalizing disorders.

Cognitive risk factors are key in the vulnerability for internalizing disorders. Cognitive risk factors modulate the way individuals process information from the environment which in turn impacts the day-to-day affective experience. In 296 young adults, we assessed two transdiagnostic, general risk factors-repetitive negative thinking (RNT) and anxiety sensitivity in a high-RNT subsample (N = 119). We also assessed disorderand content-specific risk factors including worry, rumination, and three facets of anxiety sensitivity (cognitive, social, physical). To determine the day-to-day affective experience, we used cell-phone-based ecological momentary assessment to assess the mean and variability of positive and negative affect (PA; NA) over 3-4 months. Two multilevel multivariate Bayesian models were used to predict PA and NA mean and variability from (1) general and (2) specific cognitive risk factors. Mean NA was a nonspecific correlate of cognitive risk across both models, while mean PA was most strongly related to RNT and rumination. NA variability was most strongly related to RNT, rumination, and the physiological facet of anxiety sensitivity. PA variability was a specific correlate of RNT. Results highlight that cognitive risk factors for internalizing disorders manifest in unique patterns of day-to-day emotional experience. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2023 APA, all rights reserved).

Real-World Exploration Increases Across Adolescence and Relates to Affect, Risk Taking, and Social Connectivity.

Cross-species research suggests that exploratory behaviors increase during adolescence and relate to the social, affective, and risky behaviors characteristic of this developmental stage. However, how these typical adolescent behaviors manifest and relate in real-world settings remains unclear. Using geolocation tracking to quantify exploration-variability in daily movement patterns-over a 3-month period in 58 adolescents and adults (ages 13-27) in New York City, we investigated whether daily exploration varied with age and whether exploration related to social connectivity, risk taking, and momentary positive affect. In our cross-sectional sample, we found an association between daily exploration and age, with individuals near the transition to legal adulthood exhibiting the highest exploration levels. Days of higher exploration were associated with greater positive affect irrespective of age. Higher mean exploration was associated with greater social connectivity in all participants but was linked to higher risk taking selectively among adolescents. Our results highlight the interplay of exploration and socioemotional behaviors across development and suggest that societal norms may modulate their expression in naturalistic contexts.

Does the Broaden-and-Build Theory Explain Reduction in Social Disruption After a Brief Relaxation Intervention for Women With Breast Cancer Undergoing Treatment?

Women with breast cancer experience social disruption during and after treatment. Brief cognitive-behavioral (CBT) and relaxation (RT) interventions may improve social disruption by increasing positive affect. Using the Broaden-and-Build Theory as a framework, this study examined whether short-term CBT- and RT-related increases in positive affect mediate long-term reductions in social disruption in women with breast cancer undergoing treatment (N = 183). This secondary analysis used latent change score and growth models to test 6- and 12-month intervention effects on positive affect and social disruption, respectively; a parallel-process model assessed mediation. RT demonstrated larger reductions in social disruption across 12 months compared to CBT and a health education control. Six-month latent change in positive affect was significant but not driven by condition. There was a significant direct effect linking the latent slopes of positive affect and social disruption but meditation was not observed. These preliminary findings hint at the value of promoting positive affect and inform the development of brief behavioral interventions that aim to augment social functioning among women surviving breast cancer.

Identification of careless responding in ecological momentary assessment research: From posthoc analyses to real-time data monitoring.

With the emerging ubiquity of cell phones, ecological momentary assessment (EMA) as a set of methods enable researchers to study momentary social, psychological, and affective responses to everyday life. Additionally, EMA enables researchers to acquire longitudinal data without the need for multiple lab visits. As the use of EMA in research increases, so too does the necessity of determining what constitutes valid or careless individual EMA responses to ensure validity and replicability of findings. Currently, EMA studies solely consider the response rate of a participant for exclusion. Yet, other features of an assessment can help to determine whether a response is careless or implausible. Here, we examined over 18,000 EMA text message responses of individual affect items to derive a data-driven model of what constitutes a "careless response." Results from this study indicate that an overly fast time to complete items (≤ 1 s), an overly narrow within assessment response variance (SD ≤ 5), and the percentage of items that fall at the mode (≥ 60%) are independent and reliable indicators of a careless response. Excluding careless responses such as these remove implausible positive correlations among psychometric antonyms (e.g., relaxed and anxious). Further, by identifying and removing careless responses, we also identify careless responders, participants who could be removed from group analyses. We use these results to develop and introduce an R package, EMAeval, so EMA researchers may similarly identify careless responses and responders either online during data collection or posthoc, after data collection has completed. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2023 APA, all rights reserved).

Temporal dynamics of affect in the brain: Evidence from human imaging and animal models.

Emotions are time-varying internal states that promote survival in the face of dynamic environments and shifting homeostatic needs. Research in non-human organisms has recently afforded specific insights into the neural mechanisms that support the emergence, persistence, and decay of affective states. Concurrently, a separate affective neuroscience literature has begun to dissect the neural bases of affective dynamics in humans. However, the circuit-level mechanisms identified in animals lack a clear mapping to the human neuroscience literature. As a result, critical questions pertaining to the neural bases of affective dynamics in humans remain unanswered. To address these shortcomings, the present review integrates findings from humans and non-human organisms to highlight the neural mechanisms that govern the temporal features of emotional states. Using the theory of affective chronometry as an organizing framework, we describe the specific neural mechanisms and modulatory factors that arbitrate the rise-time, intensity, and duration of emotional states.

The distribution of daily affect distinguishes internalizing and externalizing spectra and subfactors.

There has been increasing recognition that classically defined psychiatric disorders cluster hierarchically. However, the degree to which this hierarchical taxonomy manifests in the distribution of one's daily affective experience is unknown. In 462 young adults, we assessed psychiatric symptoms across internalizing and externalizing disorders and then used cell-phone-based ecological momentary assessment (EMA) to assess the distribution (mean, standard deviation, skew, kurtosis) of one's positive and negative affect over 3-4 months. Psychiatric symptoms were modeled using a higher-order factor model that estimated internalizing and externalizing spectra as well as specific disorders. Individualized factor loadings were extracted, and path models assessed associations between spectra and syndromes, and daily affect. Internalizing and externalizing spectra displayed broad differences in the distribution of affective experiences, while within the internalizing spectrum, syndromes loading onto fear and distress subfactors were associated with distinct patterns of affective experiences. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2021 APA, all rights reserved).

Linking Amygdala Persistence to Real-World Emotional Experience and Psychological Well-Being.

Neural dynamics in response to affective stimuli are linked to momentary emotional experiences. The amygdala, in particular, is involved in subjective emotional experience and assigning value to neutral stimuli. Because amygdala activity persistence following aversive events varies across individuals, some may evaluate subsequent neutral stimuli more negatively than others. This may lead to more frequent and long-lasting momentary emotional experiences, which may also be linked to self-evaluative measures of psychological well-being (PWB). Despite extant links between daily affect and PWB, few studies have directly explored the links between amygdala persistence, daily affective experience, and PWB. To that end, we examined data from 52 human adults (67% female) in the Midlife in the United States study who completed measures of PWB, daily affect, and functional MRI (fMRI). During fMRI, participants viewed affective images followed by a neutral facial expression, permitting quantification of individual differences in the similarity of amygdala representations of affective stimuli and neutral facial expressions that follow. Using representational similarity analysis, neural persistence following aversive stimuli was operationalized as similarity between the amygdala activation patterns while encoding negative images and the neutral facial expressions shown afterward. Individuals demonstrating less persistent activation patterns in the left amygdala to aversive stimuli reported more positive and less negative affect in daily life. Further, daily positive affect served as an indirect link between left amygdala persistence and PWB. These results clarify important connections between individual differences in brain function, daily experiences of affect, and well-being.SIGNIFICANCE STATEMENT At the intersection of affective neuroscience and psychology, researchers have aimed to understand how individual differences in the neural processing of affective events map onto to real-world emotional experiences and evaluations of well-being. Using a longitudinal dataset from 52 adults in the Midlife in the United States (MIDUS) study, we provide an integrative model of affective functioning: less amygdala persistence following negative images predicts greater positive affect (PA) in daily life, which in turn predicts greater psychological well-being (PWB) seven years later. Thus, day-to-day experiences of PA comprise a promising intermediate step that links individual differences in neural dynamics to complex judgements of PWB.

Post-traumatic growth as positive personality change: Challenges, opportunities, and recommendations.

OBJECTIVE: Post-traumatic growth typically refers to enduring positive psychological change experienced as a result of adversity, trauma, or highly challenging life circumstances. Critics have challenged insights from much of the prior research on this topic, pinpointing its significant methodological limitations. In response to these critiques, we propose that post-traumatic growth can be more accurately captured in terms of personality change-an approach that affords a more rigorous examination of the phenomenon. METHOD: We outline a set of conceptual and methodological questions and considerations for future work on the topic of post-traumatic growth. RESULTS: We provide a series of recommendations for researchers from across the disciplines of clinical/counseling, developmental, health, personality, and social psychology and beyond, who are interested in improving the quality of research examining resilience and growth in the context of adversity. CONCLUSION: We are hopeful that these recommendations will pave the way for a more accurate understanding of the ubiquity, durability, and causal processes underlying post-traumatic growth.

Association between real-world experiential diversity and positive affect relates to hippocampal-striatal functional connectivity.

Experiential diversity promotes well-being in animal models. Here, using geolocation tracking, experience sampling and neuroimaging, we found that daily variability in physical location was associated with increased positive affect in humans. This effect was stronger for individuals who exhibited greater functional coupling of the hippocampus and striatum. These results link diversity in real-world daily experiences to fluctuations in positive affect and identify a hippocampal-striatal circuit associated with this bidirectional relationship.

Negative affect and stress-related brain metabolism in patients with metastatic breast cancer.

BACKGROUND: Cancer and its treatment represent major stressors requiring that patients make multiple adaptations. Despite evidence that poor adaptation to stressors is associated with more distress and negative affect (NA), neuroimmune dysregulation and poorer health outcomes, current understanding is very limited of how NA covaries with central nervous system changes to account for these associations. METHODS: NA was correlated with brain metabolic activity using 18 F-fluorodeoxyglucose positron emission tomography/computed tomography (18 F-FDG PET/CT) in several regions of interest in 61 women with metastatic breast cancer. Patients underwent 18 F-FDG PET/CT and completed an assessment of NA using the Brief Symptom Inventory. RESULTS: Regression analyses revealed that NA was significantly negatively correlated with the standardized uptake value ratio of the insula, thalamus, hypothalamus, ventromedial prefrontal cortex, and lateral prefrontal cortex. Voxel-wise correlation analyses within these 5 regions of interest demonstrated high left-right symmetry and the highest NA correlations with the anterior insula, thalamus (medial and ventral portion), lateral prefrontal cortex (right Brodmann area 9 [BA9], left BA45, and right and left BA10 and BA8), and ventromedial prefrontal cortex (bilateral BA11). CONCLUSIONS: The regions of interest most strongly negatively associated with NA represent key areas for successful adaptation to stressors and may be particularly relevant in patients with metastatic breast cancer who are dealing with multiple challenges of cancer and its treatment.

Repetitive negative thinking following exposure to a natural stressor prospectively predicts altered stress responding and decision-making in the laboratory.

Repetitive negative thinking (RNT) represents a transdiagnostic risk factor for affective disorders, and stress is theorized to exacerbate this vulnerability. One mechanism by which stress may influence individual differences in psychiatric symptoms is through altered decision-making, and loss aversion in particular. The present study uses multiple methods to investigate the relationships between RNT, stress, and decision-making. We measured RNT in young adults (N = 90) recently exposed to a natural stressor, Hurricane Irma, and tested the influence of RNT on changes in affect, cortisol, and decision-making during a laboratory stress induction two months later. Post-hurricane RNT predicted greater increases in loss averse decision-making (ß = 0.30 [0.14, 0.47], p < .001; rp2 = 0.079) and negative affect (ß = 0.59 [0.37, 0.81], p < .001; rp2 = 0.319) during the early-phase response to the laboratory stressor, as well as poorer cortisol recovery (ß = 0.32, [0.10, 0.54], p = .005; rp2 = 0.095) in the late-phase stress response. Results highlight the role of loss aversion and stress in understanding RNT as an affective vulnerability factor.