Application of a dynamic in vitro model with real-time determination of acetylcholinesterase activity for the investigation of tabun analogues and oximes.

Tabun-inhibited acetylcholinesterase (AChE) is rather resistant towards reactivation by oximes in vitro while in vivo experiments showed some protection of animals poisoned by this chemical warfare nerve agent after treatment with an oxime and atropine. In addition, AChE inhibited by close tabun analogues, N,N-diethyltabun and N,N-di-n-propyltabun was completely resistant towards reactivation by oximes. In order to get more insight into potential mechanisms of this oxime resistance experiments with these toxic agents and the oximes obidoxime, 2-PAM, MMB-4 and HI-6 were performed utilizing a dynamic model with real-time determination of AChE activity. This experimental setup allowed the investigation of reactivation with minimized side reactions. The determined reactivation constants with tabun-inhibited human AChE were in good agreement with previously reported constants determined with a static model. N,N-diethyl- and N,N-di-n-propyltabun-inhibited human AChE could not be reactivated by oximes which indicates that the inadequate oxime effect was not due to re-inhibition by phosphonyloximes. Additional experiments with tabun-inhibited human and Rhesus monkey AChE revealed that no reactivation occurred with HI-6. These data give further support to the assumption that an interaction of tabun with residues in the active site gorge of AChE prevents effective reactivation by oximes, a mechanism which may also be the reason for the total oxime resistance of N,N-diethyl- and N,N-di-n-propyltabun-inhibited human AChE.

Comparative kinetics of organophosphates and oximes with erythrocyte, muscle and brain acetylcholinesterase.

There is an ongoing debate whether oximes can effectively counteract the effects of organophosphorus compounds (OP) on brain acetylcholinesterase (AChE) activity and whether there are differences in the kinetic properties of brain and erythrocyte AChE. In order to investigate the kinetics of AChE from different tissues and species the well established dynamically working in vitro model with real-time determination of membrane-bound AChE activity was adapted for use with brain AChE. The enzyme reactor, that was loaded with brain, erythrocyte or muscle AChE, was continuously perfused with substrate and chromogen while AChE activity was on-line analyzed in a flow-through detector. It was possible to determine the Michaelis-Menten constants of human erythrocyte, muscle and brain AChE which were almost identical. In addition, the inhibition kinetics of sarin and paraoxon as well as the reactivation kinetics of obidoxime and HI 6 were determined with human, swine and guinea pig brain and erythrocyte AChE. It was found that the inhibition and reactivation kinetics of brain and erythrocyte AChE were highly comparable in all tested species. These data support the view that AChE from different tissue has similar kinetic properties and that brain AChE is comparably susceptible toward reactivation by oximes.

Comparative study of oxime-induced reactivation of erythrocyte and muscle AChE from different animal species following inhibition by sarin or paraoxon.

Standard treatment of acute poisoning by organophosphorus compounds (OP) includes administration of an antimuscarinic (e.g. atropine) and of an oxime-based reactivator of OP-inhibited acetylcholinesterase (AChE). A recently introduced dynamically working in vitro model with real-time determination of membrane-bound AChE activity was shown to be a very versatile and promising model to investigate oxime-induced reactivation kinetics of OP-inhibited enzyme. In this assay, human AChE from erythrocytes or muscle tissue was immobilized on a particle filter. This bioreactor was continuously perfused with substrate and chromogen and AChE activity was analyzed on-line in a flow-through detector. The model has been successfully adopted to Rhesus monkey, swine and guinea pig erythrocytes and intercostal muscle AChE. In addition, the basic kinetic constants of inhibition, aging, spontaneous- and oxime-induced-reactivation of erythrocyte AChE from these species were determined with a standard static model. The major findings were, in part substantial species differences in the inhibition (sarin, paraoxon) and reactivation kinetics (obidoxime, HI 6) of erythrocyte AChE, but comparable kinetics of inhibition and reactivation between erythrocyte and muscle AChE. Hence, these data provide further support of the assumption that erythrocyte AChE is an adequate surrogate of muscle (synaptic) AChE and admonish that major species differences have to be considered for the design and evaluation of therapeutic animal models.

Kinetic analysis of interactions of different sarin and tabun analogues with human acetylcholinesterase and oximes: is there a structure-activity relationship?

The repeated misuse of highly toxic organophosphorus compound (OP) based chemical warfare agents in military conflicts and terrorist attacks poses a continuous threat to the military and civilian sector. The toxic symptomatology of OP poisoning is mainly caused by inhibition of acetylcholinesterase (AChE, E.C. 3.1.1.7) resulting in generalized cholinergic crisis due to accumulation of the neurotransmitter acetylcholine (ACh) in synaptic clefts. Beside atropine as competitive antagonist of ACh at muscarinic ACh receptors oximes as reactivators of OP-inhibited AChE are a mainstay of standard antidotal treatment. However, human AChE inhibited by certain OP is rather resistant to oxime-induced reactivation. The development of more effective oxime-based reactivators may fill the gaps. To get more insight into a potential structure-activity relationship between human AChE, OPs and oximes in vitro studies were conducted to investigate interactions of different tabun and sarin analogues with human AChE and the oximes obidoxime and HI 6 by determination of various kinetic constants. Rate constants for the inhibition of human AChE by OPs, spontaneous dealkylation and reactivation as well as reactivation by obidoxime and HI 6 of OP-inhibited human AChE were determined. The recorded kinetic data did not allow a general statement concerning a structure-activity relationship between human AChE, OP and oximes.

Evaluation of medical countermeasures against organophosphorus compounds: the value of experimental data and computer simulations.

Despite extensive research for more than six decades on medical countermeasures against poisoning by organophosphorus compounds (OP) the treatment options are meagre. The presently established acetylcholinesterase (AChE) reactivators (oximes), e.g. obidoxime and pralidoxime, are insufficient against a number of nerve agents and there is ongoing debate on the benefit of oxime treatment in human OP pesticide poisoning. Up to now, the therapeutic efficacy of oximes was mostly evaluated in animal models but substantial species differences prevent direct extrapolation of animal data to humans. Hence, it was considered essential to establish relevant experimental in vitro models for the investigation of oximes as antidotes and to develop computer models for the simulation of oxime efficacy in different scenarios of OP poisoning. Kinetic studies on the various interactions between erythrocyte AChE from various species, structurally different OP and different oximes provided a basis for the initial assessment of the ability of oximes to reactivate inhibited AChE. In the present study, in vitro enzyme-kinetic and pharmacokinetic data from a minipig model of dimethoate poisoning and oxime treatment were used to calculate dynamic changes of AChE activities. It could be shown that there is a close agreement between calculated and in vivo AChE activities. Moreover, computer simulations provided insight into the potential and limitations of oxime treatment. In the end, such data may be a versatile tool for the ongoing discussion of the pros and cons of oxime treatment in human OP pesticide poisoning.

Comparison of the oxime-induced reactivation of rhesus monkey, swine and guinea pig erythrocyte acetylcholinesterase following inhibition by sarin or paraoxon, using a perfusion model for the real-time determination of membrane-bound acetylcholinesterase activity.

Recently, a dynamically working in vitro model with real-time determination of membrane-bound human acetylcholinesterase (AChE) activity was shown to be a versatile model to investigate oxime-induced reactivation kinetics of organophosphate- (OP) inhibited enzyme. In this assay, AChE was immobilized on particle filters which were perfused with acetylthiocholine, Ellman's reagent and phosphate buffer. Subsequently, AChE activity was continuously analyzed in a flow-through detector. Now, it was an intriguing question whether this model could be used with erythrocyte AChE from other species in order to investigate kinetic interactions in the absence of annoying side reactions. Rhesus monkey, swine and guinea pig erythrocytes were a stable and highly reproducible enzyme source. Then, the model was applied to the reactivation of sarin- and paraoxon-inhibited AChE by obidoxime or HI 6 and it could be shown that the derived reactivation rate constants were in good agreement to previous results obtained from experiments with a static model. Hence, this dynamic model offers the possibility to investigate highly reproducible interactions between AChE, OP and oximes with human and animal AChE.

Identical kinetics of human erythrocyte and muscle acetylcholinesterase with respect to carbamate pre-treatment, residual activity upon soman challenge and spontaneous reactivation after withdrawal of the inhibitors.

The efficacy of oxime treatment in soman poisoning is limited due to rapid aging of inhibited acetylcholinesterase (AChE). Pre-treatment with carbamates was shown to improve antidotal treatment substantially. Recently, by using a dynamically working in vitro model with real-time determination of membrane-bound AChE activity, we were able to demonstrate that pre-inhibition of human erythrocyte AChE with pyridostigmine or physostigmine resulted in a markedly higher residual AChE activity after inhibition by soman or paraoxon than in the absence of reversible inhibitors. The purpose of the present study was to compare the effect of carbamate pre-treatment and soman challenge with human erythrocyte and muscle homogenate AChE. Both enzyme sources were immobilized on particle filters which were perfused with acetylthiocholine, Ellman's reagent and phosphate buffer. AChE activity was continuously analyzed in a flow-through detector. Pre-inhibition of AChE with pyridostigmine or physostigmine resulted in a concentration-dependent increase in carbamylation, residual activity after soman inhibition and fraction of decarbamylation AChE after discontinuation of the inhibitors without differences between human erythrocyte and muscle AChE. This data support the view that human erythrocyte AChE is an adequate surrogate marker for synaptic AChE in OP poisoning.