Small-scale spatial variation in infection risk shapes the evolution of a Borrelia resistance gene in wild rodents.

Spatial variation in pathogen-mediated selection is predicted to influence the evolutionary trajectory of host populations and lead to spatial variation in their immunogenetic composition. However, to date few studies have been able to directly link small-scale spatial variation in infection risk to host immune gene evolution in natural, nonhuman populations. Here, we use a natural rodent-Borrelia system to test for associations between landscape-level spatial variation in Borrelia infection risk along replicated elevational gradients in the Swiss Alps and Toll-like receptor 2 (TLR2) evolution, a candidate gene for Borrelia resistance, across bank vole (Myodes glareolus) populations. We found that Borrelia infection risk (i.e., the product of Borrelia prevalence in questing ticks and the average tick load of voles at a sampling site) was spatially variable and significantly negatively associated with elevation. Across sampling sites, Borrelia prevalence in bank voles was significantly positively associated with Borrelia infection risk along the elevational clines. We observed a significant association between naturally occurring TLR2 polymorphisms in hosts and their Borrelia infection status. The TLR2 variant associated with a reduced likelihood of Borrelia infection was most common in rodent populations at lower elevations that face a high Borrelia infection risk, and its frequency changed in accordance with the change in Borrelia infection risk along the elevational clines. These results suggest that small-scale spatial variation in parasite-mediated selection affects the immunogenetic composition of natural host populations, providing a striking example that the microbial environment shapes the evolution of the host's immune system in the wild.

Structures of Microbial Communities in Alpine Soils: Seasonal and Elevational Effects.

Microbial communities in alpine environments are exposed to several environmental factors related to elevation and local site conditions and to extreme seasonal variations. However, little is known on the combined impact of such factors on microbial community structure. We assessed the effects of seasonal variations on soil fungal and bacterial communities along an elevational gradient (from alpine meadows to a glacier forefield, 1930-2519 m a.s.l.) over 14 months. Samples were taken during all four seasons, even under the winter snowpack and at snowmelt. Microbial community structures and abundances were investigated using Terminal Restriction Fragment Length Polymorphism (T-RFLP) and quantitative PCR (qPCR) of the 16S and 18S rRNA genes. Illumina sequencing was performed to identify key bacterial groups in selected samples. We found that the soil properties varied significantly with the seasons and along the elevational gradient. For example, concentrations of soluble nutrients (e.g., [Formula: see text], [Formula: see text], [Formula: see text]) significantly increased in October but decreased drastically under the winter snowpack. At all times, the alpine meadows showed higher soluble nutrient concentrations than the glacier forefield. Microbial community structures at the different sites were strongly affected by seasonal variations. Under winter snowpack, bacterial communities were dominated by ubiquitous groups (i.e., beta-Proteobacteria, which made up to 25.7% of the total reads in the glacier forefield). In the snow-free seasons, other groups (i.e., Cyanobacteria) became more abundant (from 1% under winter snow in the glacier forefield samples to 8.1% in summer). In summary, elevation had a significant effect on soil properties, whereas season influenced soil properties as well as microbial community structure. Vegetation had a minor impact on microbial communities. At every elevation analyzed, bacterial, and fungal community structures exhibited a pronounced annual cycle.