Tannins--a dietary problem for hand-reared grey partridge Perdix perdix after release?

A 4-week feeding trial on 22 grey partridges Perdix perdix was conducted in this study. Seven birds were fed commercial poultry food, seven natural food and eight commercial poultry food containing 6% of quebracho-tannin. Our results suggest that 6% dietary tannin, when added to a commercial food with high protein content, effects the grey partridge only slightly. No difference was seen in food consumption and body mass remained stable. However, birds fed tannin had longer small intestines, which most probably indicate gastrointestinal detoxication. They also excreted a high amount of tannin in their faeces. In addition, no between-group variation was seen in cytochrome P450 enzymes. Birds fed natural food had high concentration of nitrogen in intestinal excreta and high plasma alanine concentrations. They also suffered a rapid decrease in body mass after the change in diet and their body mass remained low. This may indicate increased protein excretion and/or catabolism of endogenous nutrient reserves. Potential short-term effects of the change in diet were seen in plasma. These findings coincide with the high mortality period of birds released into the wild.

Impact of hand-rearing on morphology and physiology of the capercaillie (Tetrao urogallus).

Morphological and physiological disparities between 20 captive and 11 wild capercaillies were determined. Birds, their pectoral and leg muscles, hearts, livers and gizzards were weighed. The length of small intestines and caeca were measured. Haemoglobin, haematocrit, glucose, triglycerides, total protein, uric acid and thyroid hormones as well as the cytochrome c-oxidase activity of the pectoral muscle and heart were determined. The glycogen and protein contents of pectoral and leg muscles and liver were analysed. Chemical composition (water, fat, protein, ash) of muscles and liver was determined. Captive males had heavier pectoral muscles than wild ones. The result was opposite in females. Wild birds had heavier hearts, livers, and gizzards, and also longer small intestines and caeca than captive birds. The cytochrome c-oxidase activity of pectoral muscle and heart was higher in wild than in hand-reared birds. The chemical composition of livers of wild birds differed significantly from that of hand-reared capercaillies. Plasma uric acid and T(4) concentrations were higher in captive than in wild birds. The observed differences in digestive system and liver can result in diminished ability of captive birds to utilise natural food nutrients. Decreased cytochrome c-oxidase activity of hand-reared birds can affect their takeoff and flying capacity and increase their vulnerability to predation. These facts may contribute to the low survival of hand-reared birds after release.

Cardiovascular and thermoregulatory responses to vasotocin and angiotensin II in the pigeon.

The cardiovascular and thermoregulatory effects of intrahypothalamically (preoptic/anterior hypothalamus) and intravenously injected arginine vasotocin (AVT) and [Val5]angiotensin II (ANG II) were measured at 2 degrees C in the pigeon (Columba livia). In addition, the effects of intrahypothalamic and intravenous injections of AVT on respiratory rates were measured at 10-15 degrees C. Intrahypothalamic and intravenous AVT (500 ng and 20 micrograms/kg, respectively) reduced shivering and body temperature but had no effects on blood pressure, heart rate or respiratory rate. Intrahypothalamic (500 ng and 1 microgram) and intravenous (3 micrograms/kg) ANG II elevated blood pressure. If the blood pressure increased slowly, the shivering and body temperature also increased, whereas a rapid rise in blood pressure inhibited shivering and lowered body temperature. Intravenous ANG II produced tachycardia but intrahypothalamic ANG II did not affect the heart rate.

Submaximal exercise in the cold: does cooling potentiate the development of muscle injuries in the rat?

To test the effect of low ambient temperature on muscular strain and possible development of muscle injuries, male Sprague-Dawley rats (n = 35) were exercised at a speed of 15 m min-1 on a treadmill at a 6 degrees inclination for 1.5 h in a warm (22 degrees C) or a cold (-10 degrees C) environment. Blood and tissue samples were collected 0 and 48 h postexercise. Blood glucose, lactate, pyruvate, cortisol, epinephrine (E) and norepinephrine (NE) were determined to investigate the effect on energy metabolism. To estimate the degree of physical strain, possible muscle injury and regenerative processes of muscles in response to exercise in the cold, serum creatine kinase (CK), lactate dehydrogenase (LDH), muscle beta-glucuronidase and prolyl-4-hydroxylase (PH) activities were measured. In addition, histology of the hindlimb muscles m. soleus and m. tibialis anterior was examined. In general, the circulating level of metabolic substrates during exercise were unaffected by the exercise and independent of ambient temperature. Plasma cortisol increased significantly during exercise (P < 0.01), but was unaffected by the thermal strain. Of the myocellular enzymes, serum CK increased by 100% (P < 0.01) and LDH by 93% (P < 0.05) during exercise in the cold compared with exercise in warm, indicating a higher physical strain. However, exercise in the cold did not result in muscle injuries as judged by the unaltered muscular beta-glucuronidase, PH levels and muscle morphology. It is concluded that the exercise type and intensity used caused stress that was independent of the ambient temperature. In addition, the rats were able to maintain unaltered circulating levels of energy substrates also in the cold. Finally, exercise in the cold increased muscular strain but did not result in muscle injuries.

Energy cost and thermoregulation of unrestrained rats during exercise in the cold.

The effect of cold ambient temperature on the energy cost and thermoregulation during exercise was studied in 18 male Sprague-Dawley rats accustomed to running for 2 weeks. For measuring T(b) and ensuring an unrestrained exercise performance, the rats were implanted with intraperitoneal telemetric radio transmitters. The rats ran at three submaximal exercise intensities (10, 15 and 20 m.min-1) at different T(a) values (22 degrees, 0 degree, -10 degrees and -20 degrees C) for 30 min. VO2 and Tb were continuously measured. During exercise at 0 degree C a 100% substitution of thermoregulatory heat production by exercise thermogenesis was observed. At T(a) values below 0 degree C the physical strain of exercise increased considerably: Vo2 increased 34-61% at -10 degrees C and 51% at -20 degrees C compared to the corresponding exercise intensity at T(a) 22 degrees C. A partial substitution of thermoregulatory heat production by exercise thermogenesis was observed in the cold. At -10 degrees C the cost for thermoregulation during exercise was 28% and at -20 degrees C 31% lower than at rest at the corresponding T(a) values. The rat could not maintain normal Tb during exercise below 0 degrees C. The T(b) dropped 1.5-1.8 degrees C at -10 degrees C and 2.5 degrees C at -20 degrees C. It is concluded that exercising below 0 degree C at submaximal levels (below 50% of VO2max) partially substitutes for thermoregulatory costs but is thermally unfavorable for the small-sized rat.

Noradrenaline-induced hypothermia is suppressed in the vagotomized cold-exposed pigeon.

Vagotomized (VX) pigeons studied 2 days after surgery exhibited a significant decrease in cloacal temperature (Tb) and respiratory rate (Rf), and an increase in heart rate (Hf) and metabolic rate (M) at the thermoneutral zone, when compared with sham-operated (SVX) pigeons. The effect of intravenous noradrenaline (NA) on Tb, Rf, Hf and M was examined in SVX and VX-pigeons at 15 degrees C. Following NA administration, the Tb and Rf in the SVX-birds dropped from the preinjection level, but in VX-pigeons, they were not significantly altered. In SVX-pigeons, a total suppression of shivering was apparent following NA-injection, while in the majority of VX-pigeons, shivering was only slightly affected or even increased. The Hf in both SVX- and VX-birds increased following NA-injection. The responses to reserpine were qualitatively similar to NA, although much slower. There were no differences between SVX- and VX-birds with regard to Tb, M and Rf following acetylcholine (ACh) and eserine (Ese) injection. Hf increased after ACh+Ese administration in SVX-pigeons, but in VX-birds, it decreased after an initial surge. Shivering was suppressed for 18-20 min in SVX-birds and 30-50 min in VX-birds. It is suggested that the lack of the hypothermic effect of NA in VX-birds is due to the maintenance of oxygen uptake with unimpaired capacity for shivering.

Seasonal patterns in the physiology of the European brown bear (Ursus arctos arctos) in Finland.

The physiological indicators such as body temperature, blood chemistry and hematology of seven European brown bears (Ursus arctos arctos) were used in the present study. They were kept in either the Zoological Garden of University of Oulu (65 degrees N, 25 degrees 24'E) or the Ranua Zoological Garden approx. 150 km NE of Oulu. Transmitters with a temperature-dependent pulse rate were implanted subcutaneously or into the abdominal cavity under anesthesia. Our data indicate that the body temperature of the bear decreases during the winter sleep to 4-5 degrees C below the normal level (37.0-37.5 degrees C). The lowest values, 33.1-33.3 degrees C, were measured several times in midwinter. Hematocrit, hemoglobin and erythrocyte counts seem to be higher, and the leucocyte count lower during the denning period than in the awake bear. Plasma N-wastes were lower during the winter sleep than before or after it. The analysed blood parameters showed that plasma catecholamines and thyroid hormones decreased in the fall.

Metabolism, thermogenesis and daily rhythm of body temperature in the wood lemming, Myopus schisticolor.

Wood lemmings (Myopus schisticolor) were captured during their autumnal migration in September and October. The animals were maintained at 12 degrees C and under 12L:12D photoperiod. Basal metabolic rate and thermogenic capacity of the wood lemming were studied. Basal metabolic rate was 3.54 ml O2.g-1.h-1, which is 215-238% of the expected value. The high basal metabolic rate seems to be typical of rodents living in high latitudes. The body temperature of the wood lemming was high (38.0-38.8 degrees C), and did not fluctuate much during the 24-h recording. The high basal metabolic rate and the high body temperature are discussed with regard to behavioural adaptation to a low-quality winter diet. Thermogenic capacity, thermal insulation and non-shivering thermogenesis of the wood lemming displayed higher values than expected: 53.0 mW.g-1, 0.53 mW.g-1.degrees C-1 and 53.2 mW.g-1, respectively. Brown adipose tissue showed typical thermogenic properties, although its respiratory property was fairly low, but mitochondrial protein content was high compared to other small mammals. The 24-h recording of body temperature and motor activity did not reveal whether the wood lemming is a nocturnal animal. Possibly, the expression of a circadian rhythm was masked by peculiar feeding behaviour. It is concluded that the wood lemming is well adapted to living in cold-temperature climates.

The abnormal conduct of capercaillies Tetrao urogallus.

The frequency, behavior, and testosterone levels of deviant capercaillies were studied in southern Finland. Roughly 1% of the population was estimated to behave abnormally. Deviant males display and show threatening behavior toward not only humans, but also attacked stuffed capercaillie males and without hesitation copulated with a stuffed female. Deviant females appear tame and crouch in front of humans, but avoid males. The testosterone level in deviant males was about five times higher than that of normal displaying males. The origin of this striking phenomenon is still unclear, although it must be connected with display. Two, though not mutually exclusive, proximate mechanisms for the development of this abnormal behavior are presented: anomalous sex hormone concentrations and incorrect sexual imprinting. The ultimate reason for the apparent increase in numbers of deviant capercaillies is probably logging which diminishes populations and, thereby, favors the spreading of abnormal behavior.

Nocturnal hypothermia in fasting Japanese quail: the effect of ambient temperature.

Japanese quail were equipped with intraperitoneal transmitters for telemetric measurement of body temperature (Tb) and activity. Food deprivation at + 24 degrees C for four days induced a well-defined nocturnal hypothermic response. The normal day-night difference (about 1 degrees C) in Tb increased 1 degrees C per day, reaching 5 degrees C on the fourth night of fast. Nocturnal motor activity decreased during the fast, while daytime activity first increased and then returned to the original level by the end of the fasting period. A strong correlation between Tb and motor activity was found during scotophase (r = .91) but not during photophase (r = .02). At + 4 degrees C, where food was deprived for two days, the level of hypothermia was not different from that at + 24 degrees C, but birds fasting in the cold reached the hypothermic level more rapidly. In control birds, the decrease in Tb at the beginning of scotophase was independent of ambient temperature. In the combined data, the level of hypothermia correlated strongly with body mass loss (r = .90), which shows that quail can directly or indirectly sense the amount of body energy reserves. This is the first report of hypothermia in a fasting gallinaceous bird. The consistent level of hypothermia at varying ambient temperatures suggests that either nonenergetic costs or phylogenetic constraints prevent deeper hypothermia in cold. Accordingly, the regulation of hypothermia cannot be explained by using only energetic arguments.

Central control of body temperature. A review.

The control of body temperature takes place in the central nervous system at different levels, from the spinal cord to the upper parts of the brain. Experimental studies have shown that heat-producing muscular shivering is stimulated only when the spinal cord becomes cooler. The regulation of other components participating in the control of thermoregulation proceeds in hierarchical order so that the coordination takes place ultimately in the hypothalamus, mainly in the preoptic region, and at the same time temperature regulation is coupled with other autonomic functions such as control of food intake, osmoregulation, and hormone secretion. Those neuronal models, by means of which attempts were still being made a few years ago to demonstrate the linkages and integration of the neuronal pathways stimulating heat gain and heat loss in the control centre of temperature regulation are already obsolete. This is due to the fact that the neurons of the central nervous system do not transmit information from cell to cell by means of only one classical transmitter substance, but each neuron can signal by means of at least 5-6 neurotransmitters or neuromodulators.

Effects of short photoperiod and melatonin treatment on thermogenesis in the Syrian hamster.

This study investigated whether short photoperiod or melatonin-treatment could alter the thermogenic capacity of Syrian hamsters. Exposure of hamsters to short photoperiod and to exogenous melatonin treatment induced gonadal regression and hypertrophy of brown adipose tissue (BAT). Short photoperiod and melatonin-induced BAT hypertrophy was not accompanied by any change in noradrenaline (NA) turnover in this tissue. The concentration of NA was significantly decreased in hypertrophied BAT, indicating that sympathetic innervation in BAT did not effect its hypertrophy. No improvement in nonshivering thermogenic capacity was noticed in hamsters with increased BAT mass. However, capability for shivering thermogenesis seemed to be enhanced in melatonin-treated hamsters. These observations suggest that melatonin, in addition to mediating short photoperiod-induced gonadal regression in the Syrian hamster, also brings about thermoregulatory adjustments necessary for hibernation.

Suppression of sympathetic nervous system by short photoperiod and melatonin in the Syrian hamster.

Exposure to short photoperiod or melatonin treatment brings about gonadal regression in Syrian hamsters. The possible influence of these treatments on the sympathetic nervous system (SNS) in these animals was investigated. Male Syrian hamsters were exposed to either long or short photoperiod or subjected to administration of melatonin or its vehicle solution. Exposure of hamsters to 10 weeks of short photoperiod, significantly reduced the noradrenaline (NA) turnover in the heart. Daily administration of melatonin for 8 weeks also resulted in a similar suppression of NA turnover in the heart. Hamsters that were treated with melatonin maintained a lowered metabolic rate as well, at and below thermoneutral temperature. These findings suggest that in a deep hibernator, short photoperiod could suppress the peripheral sympathetic activity and that melatonin may act as the endogenous mediator.

The influence of ambient temperature on metabolism and body temperature of newborn and growing reindeer calves (Rangifer tarandus tarandus L.).

Thermoregulatory capacities of 51 reindeer calves (Rangifer tarandus tarandus L.) aged 1-35 days were studied at -26.5 to +35.0 degrees C ambient temperatures at Kaamanen reindeer research station, Finland (69 degrees 10' N) during calving periods in May 1981 and May-July 1982. The newborn calves aged 1-4 days maintained a high body temperature (Tre) (mean +40.2 degrees C) even at the lowest experimental temperature of -22.5 degrees C by increasing their metabolic rate five-fold above the level at +11.0 degrees C. Heat production of the new-born calves was largely based on the metabolism of brown adipose tissue, stimulated by cold-induced discharge of the sympathetic nervous transmitter, noradrenaline (NA). Sensitivity of the calves to exogenous NA disappeared during the first 3-4 weeks of life. Thermal conductance of the calves was low at low ambient temperatures, but rose strongly as Ta increased above +10 degrees C. The extensive peripheral cooling, especially in the feet, was demonstrated in the calves aged 1-10 days. The lowest foot temperature (+10.5 degrees C) was measured in a 4-day-old calf at -14.5 degrees C. Slight shivering thermogenesis was recorded in the calves aged 1-4 days and occasionally in the older calves at low values of Ta. Shivering appears to be a reserve mechanism against severe cold. At about +20 degrees C and above the calves increased their Tre (approximately 1 degree C), oxygen consumption and heart rate. In the newborn calves oxygen consumption rose four- to five-fold and in 1-month-old calves about two-fold. Fast growing calves (maximum 400 g/day) appear to be more stressed by heat than by cold exposure.

Seasonal changes in some plasma hormones in pigeons from different environments.

Seasonal variation in the plasma concentration of lutropin (LH), follitropin (FSH), prolactin (PRL), thyroxine (T4), triiodothyronine (T3) and corticosterone (B) were measured in the pigeon by RIA methods. Pigeons were maintained indoors under constant ambient temperature (Ta) and simulated natural daylight (LD), 12:12 L:D regimens or outdoors exposed to seasonal variations in temperature and photoperiod at Oulu, Finland. Only slight changes of gonadotropins (LH, FSH) were observed throughout the year, without any clear photosensitive or photorefractory period. In the indoor (natural LD) group, LH stayed elevated from May until October. Interdependence between the circannual hormonal fluctuation and photoperiod could not be shown, although the amplitude of FSH, T4 and T3 fluctuation of pigeons maintained in laboratory conditions were greater than that of natural LD and outdoor pigeons, whose circannual rhythms were similar. A high concentration of plasma PRL in autumn and the peak value of B in winter for all groups are thought to be correlated to lipid metabolism. Two peaks, the first in winter and the second in autumn, observed in T4 and T3 hormone profiles, may be due to molting of the pigeons.

Seasonal changes in some plasma hormones in pigeons: diurnal variation under natural photoperiods with constant or seasonally changing ambient temperature.

The diurnal variations of several plasma hormones and free fatty acids (FFA) were studied during periods in summer and winter for pigeons reared either outdoors or indoors. The latter were subjected to constant temperature and naturally varying photoperiods. A significant seasonal variation in the mean daily levels of triiodothyronine (T3), thyroxine (T4), corticosterone (B), lutropin (LH) and FFA was seen in the outdoor birds and in the T4 and B levels of indoor birds. The diurnal variation of hormone levels was generally more pronounced in winter in both groups. Cold ambient temperature significantly decreased the plasma LH level and potentiated the increasing effect of short photoperiod on plasma B level. Diurnal variation of plasma FFA level seems to be under the control of photoperiod, without any effects due to the ambient temperature. No significant correlation was found between FFA and GH concentrations.

The effect of pinealectomy on plasma levels of thyroid hormones in pigeons reared under different photoperiods.

The effects of pinealectomy on plasma T3, T4 and free T4 concentrations were studied for about 10 weeks in pigeons maintained either under a constant short photophase or in a regime where a long photophase was replaced by a short one during the experiments. The results indicate that, regardless of the photoperiod, no clear functional relationship can be found between the avian pineal gland and thyroid function, although a transitory increase in T4 levels was seen in both pinealectomized and sham-operated birds shortly after the operations.