Inflammatory signal induced IL-10 production of marginal zone B-cells depends on CREB.

IL-10 is a suppressive cytokine that has been implicated in the pathophysiology of autoimmune disorders and can be produced by different cell types such as regulatory B-cells. Our previous work showed that under inflammatory condition MZ B-cells differentiated into IL-10 producing cells and contributed to the downregulation of collagen-induced arthritis, while follicular B-cells failed to do so. Based on these observations, we aimed to investigate how inflammatory signals mediated through the BCR, TLR9 and IFN-γ receptors trigger IL-10 production in MZ B-cells but leave FO B-cells unresponsive. We particularly focused on the CREB transcription factor as it is involved in all three signalling cascades and analysed its contribution to IL-10 production. Our results demonstrate that the IL-10 production of MZ B-cells induced by the BCR, TLR9 and IFN-γ receptors is mediated by CREB. We showed that the activation of CREB is prolonged in MZ B-cells while the transcription factor only transiently phosphorylated in FO B-cells. The sustained phosphorylation of CREB is clearly associated with its prolonged binding to molecular partner CBP, whereas inhibition of their association decreased IL-10 production. We assume that sustained activation of CREB is required for IL-10 production by B-cells under inflammatory conditions.

Live cell superresolution-structured illumination microscopy imaging analysis of the intercellular transport of microvesicles and costimulatory proteins via nanotubes between immune cells.

Membrane nanotubes are transient long-distance connections between cells that can facilitate intercellular communication. These tethers can form spontaneously between many cell types, including cells of the immune and nervous systems. Traffic of viral proteins, vesicles, calcium ions, mRNA, miRNA, mitochondria, lysosomes and membrane proteins/raft domains have all been reported so far via the open ended tunneling nanotubes (TNTs). Recently we reported on existence of plasma membrane derived GM1/GM3 ganglioside enriched microvesicles and costimulatory proteins in nanotubes connecting B lymphocytes, the way they are formed and transported across TNTs, however, still remained unclear. Here, using live cell confocal and Structured Illumination (SR-SIM) superresolution imaging, we show that B cells respond to bacterial (Cholera) toxin challenge by their subsequent internalization followed by rapid formation of intracellular microvesicles (MVs). These MVs are then transported between adjacent B cells via nanotubes. Selective transport-inhibition analysis of two abundant motor proteins in these cell types demonstrated that actin-based non-muscle myosin 2A dominantly mediates intercellular MV-transport via TNTs, in contrast to the microtubule-based dynein, as shown by the unchanged transport after inhibition of the latter. As suggested by SR-SIM images of GFP-CD86 transfected macrophages, these costimulatory molecules may be transferred by unusually shaped MVs through thick TNTs connecting macrophages. In contrast, in B cell cultures the same GFP-CD86 is dominantly transported along the membrane wall of TNTs. Such intercellular molecule-exchange can consequently improve the efficiency of antigen-dependent T cell activation, especially in macrophages with weak costimulator expression and T cell activation capacity. Such improved T cell activating potential of these two cell types may result in a more efficient cellular immune response and formation of immunological memory. The results also highlight the power of superresolution microscopy to uncover so far hidden structural details of biological processes, such as microvesicle formation and transport.

Affinity Purification and Comparative Biosensor Analysis of Citrulline-Peptide-Specific Antibodies in Rheumatoid Arthritis.

BACKGROUND: In rheumatoid arthritis (RA), anti-citrullinated protein/peptide antibodies (ACPAs) are responsible for disease onset and progression, however, our knowledge is limited on ligand binding affinities of autoantibodies with different citrulline-peptide specificity. METHODS: Citrulline-peptide-specific ACPA IgGs were affinity purified and tested by ELISA. Binding affinities of ACPA IgGs and serum antibodies were compared by surface plasmon resonance (SPR) analysis. Bifunctional nanoparticles harboring a multi-epitope citrulline-peptide and a complement-activating peptide were used to induce selective depletion of ACPA-producing B cells. RESULTS: KD values of affinity-purified ACPA IgGs varied between 10-6 and 10-8 M and inversely correlated with disease activity. Based on their cross-reaction with citrulline-peptides, we designed a novel multi-epitope peptide, containing Cit-Gly and Ala-Cit motifs in two-two copies, separated with a short, neutral spacer. This peptide detected antibodies in RA sera with 66% sensitivity and 98% specificity in ELISA and was recognized by 90% of RA sera, while none of the healthy samples in SPR. When coupled to nanoparticles, the multi-epitope peptide specifically targeted and depleted ACPA-producing B cells ex vivo. CONCLUSIONS: The unique multi-epitope peptide designed based on ACPA cross-reactivity might be suitable to develop better diagnostics and novel therapies for RA.

MZ B cells migrate in a T-bet dependent manner and might contribute to the remission of collagen-induced arthritis by the secretion of IL-10.

In mice, marginal zone (MZ) B cells are found principally in the MZ of the spleen and characterized as CD23-negative cells, primarily express polyreactive BCRs, high levels of complement receptor-2 and TLRs. Collagen-induced arthritis (CIA) is a commonly used animal model of human rheumatoid arthritis, considered as a Th1-mediated disease. Although the importance of MZ B cells in the initiation of CIA is well established, their role in remission is unexplored. Besides, playing a central role in Th1 cell development, T-box transcription factor (T-bet) has important functions in B cells. T-bet is regulated by IFN-γ and through the BCR and TLR9, the signals that have an impact on regulatory IL-10 production. In this work, we aimed to analyze the contribution of T-bet to the function of IL-10-positive MZ B cells. We demonstrate that during the remission phase of CIA, MZ B cells express an elevated level of T-bet and confirm the existence of IL-10/T-bet coexpressing cells. Moreover, we show that T-bet-expressing MZ B cells migrate toward CXCR3 ligand and secrete IL-10 by inflammatory stimuli. Our data suggest that T-bet might contribute to the remission of CIA by facilitating the regulatory potential of IL-10-positive MZ B cells.

Synthetic Peptide-Based ELISA and ELISpot Assay for Identifying Autoantibody Epitopes.

Enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) is an invaluable diagnostic tool to detect serum autoantibody binding to target antigen. To map the autoantigenic epitope(s), overlapping synthetic peptides covering the total sequence of a protein antigen are used. A large set of peptides synthesized on the crown of pins can be tested by Multipin ELISA for fast screening. Next, to validate the results, the candidate epitope peptides are resynthesized by solid-phase synthesis, coupled to ELISA plate directly, or in a biotinylated form, bound to neutravidin-coated surface and the binding of autoantibodies from patients' sera is tested by indirect ELISA. Further, selected epitope peptides can be applied in enzyme-linked immunospot assay to distinguish individual, citrullinated peptide-specific autoreactive B cells in a pre-stimulated culture of patients' lymphocytes.

Bead arrays for antibody and complement profiling reveal joint contribution of antibody isotypes to C3 deposition.

The development of antigen arrays has provided researchers with great tools to identify reactivities against self or foreign antigens from body fluids. Yet, these approaches mostly do not address antibody isotypes and their effector functions even though these are key points for a more detailed understanding of disease processes. Here, we present a bead array-based assay for a multiplexed determination of antigen-specific antibody levels in parallel with their properties for complement activation. We measured the deposition of C3 fragments from serum samples to reflect the degree of complement activation via all three complement activation pathways. We utilized the assay on a bead array containing native and citrullinated peptide antigens to investigate the levels of IgG, IgM and IgA autoantibodies along with their complement activating properties in serum samples of 41 rheumatoid arthritis patients and 40 controls. Our analysis revealed significantly higher IgG reactivity against the citrullinated fibrinogen ß and filaggrin peptides as well as an IgA reactivity that was exclusive for citrullinated fibrinogen ß peptide and C3 deposition in rheumatoid arthritis patients. In addition, we characterized the humoral immune response against the viral EBNA-1 antigen to demonstrate the applicability of this assay beyond autoimmune conditions. We observed that particular buffer compositions were demanded for separate measurement of antibody reactivity and complement activation, as detection of antigen-antibody complexes appeared to be masked due to C3 deposition. We also found that rheumatoid factors of IgM isotype altered C3 deposition and introduced false-positive reactivities against EBNA-1 antigen. In conclusion, the presented bead-based assay setup can be utilized to profile antibody reactivities and immune-complex induced complement activation in a high-throughput manner and could facilitate the understanding and diagnosis of several diseases where complement activation plays role in the pathomechanism.

Recognition of new citrulline-containing peptide epitopes by autoantibodies produced in vivo and in vitro by B cells of rheumatoid arthritis patients.

Anti-citrullinated peptide/protein antibodies (ACPAs) are highly sensitive and specific markers of rheumatoid arthritis (RA). Identification of peptide epitopes that may detect different subgroups of RA patients might have diagnostic and prognostic significance. We have investigated citrulline- and arginine-containing peptide pairs derived from filaggrin, collagen or vimentin, and compared this citrulline-peptide panel with the serological assays conventionally used to detect ACPAs. Furthermore, we studied if the same citrulline-peptides identify antibody-secreting cells in in vitro cultures of RA B cells. Recognition of citrulline- and arginine-containing filaggrin, vimentin and collagen peptide epitopes were tested by Multipin ELISA system, by indirect ELISA and by a peptide-specific microarray. B cells were purified from blood by negative selection; antibody-producing cells were enumerated by ELISPOT assay. The panel composed of citrulline-peptide epitopes of filaggrin, collagen and vimentin was recognized by RA sera with a sensitivity and specificity comparable with the currently used tests. Moreover, the combined citrulline-peptide panel including the new short epitope peptide of filaggrin, fil311-315, also identified nearly one-third of RA cases that were negative for antibodies against cyclic citrullinated peptides, mutated citrullinated vimentin or for rheumatoid factor. The results with the peptide-specific microarray have shown that although most ACPAs recognizing the four citrulline peptides are IgG, some of them specifically recognizing citrulline-containing filaggrin peptides (fil311-315 and fil306-326) are IgM, and so may be produced either by newly formed activated B cells or by unswitched B memory cells. Furthermore, the citrulline-peptides of filaggrin and vimentin detect ACPA-producing cells, and so could also be applied to study the B cells of RA patients.

T-bet is a new synergistic meeting point for the BCR and TLR9 signaling cascades.

The importance of the BCR and TLR9 in autoimmunity and in the production of auto-antibodies is well established but the underlying molecular mechanism still needs to be determined. Here, we aim to characterize the BCR-TLR9 cross-talk by its effect on T-bet, as T-bet is activated and regulated by both receptors and has an important role in class-switching to pathological IgG2a in mice. Using primary mouse B cells, we demonstrate that T-bet expression is synergistically elevated by the cross-talk between the BCR and TLR9. To test the effect of this synergy on IgG2a-switching, the levels of switched B cells were checked by functional tests. We found that BCR costimulation had no additional effect on TLR9-induced IgG2a expression, however the expression of Rad51 was synergistically increased. To check the biological significance of the synergy, we compared T-bet expression in B cells from healthy and collagen-induced arthritis mice but no differences were found. Taken together, we demonstrate here that signaling cascades driven by the BCR and TLR9 have a newly identified meeting point at T-bet. The two cascades act synergistically on T-bet; however additional signals may be needed to induce prolonged functional responses such as class-switch recombination.