Programming co-assembled peptide nanofiber morphology via anionic amino acid type: Insights from molecular dynamics simulations.

Co-assembling peptides can be crafted into supramolecular biomaterials for use in biotechnological applications, such as cell culture scaffolds, drug delivery, biosensors, and tissue engineering. Peptide co-assembly refers to the spontaneous organization of two different peptides into a supramolecular architecture. Here we use molecular dynamics simulations to quantify the effect of anionic amino acid type on co-assembly dynamics and nanofiber structure in binary CATCH(+/-) peptide systems. CATCH peptide sequences follow a general pattern: CQCFCFCFCQC, where all C's are either a positively charged or a negatively charged amino acid. Specifically, we investigate the effect of substituting aspartic acid residues for the glutamic acid residues in the established CATCH(6E-) molecule, while keeping CATCH(6K+) unchanged. Our results show that structures consisting of CATCH(6K+) and CATCH(6D-) form flatter ß-sheets, have stronger interactions between charged residues on opposing ß-sheet faces, and have slower co-assembly kinetics than structures consisting of CATCH(6K+) and CATCH(6E-). Knowledge of the effect of sidechain type on assembly dynamics and fibrillar structure can help guide the development of advanced biomaterials and grant insight into sequence-to-structure relationships.

Side-Chain Chemistry Governs Hierarchical Order of Charge-Complementary ß-sheet Peptide Coassemblies.

Self-assembly of proteinaceous biomolecules into functional materials with ordered structures that span length scales is common in nature yet remains a challenge with designer peptides under ambient conditions. This report demonstrates how charged side-chain chemistry affects the hierarchical co-assembly of a family of charge-complementary ß-sheet-forming peptide pairs known as CATCH(X+/Y-) at physiologic pH and ionic strength in water. In a concentration-dependent manner, the CATCH(6K+) (Ac-KQKFKFKFKQK-Am) and CATCH(6D-) (Ac-DQDFDFDFDQD-Am) pair formed either ß-sheet-rich microspheres or ß-sheet-rich gels with a micron-scale plate-like morphology, which were not observed with other CATCH(X+/Y-) pairs. This hierarchical order was disrupted by replacing D with E, which increased fibril twisting. Replacing K with R, or mutating the N- and C-terminal amino acids in CATCH(6K+) and CATCH(6D-) to Qs, increased observed co-assembly kinetics, which also disrupted hierarchical order. Due to the ambient assembly conditions, active CATCH(6K+)-green fluorescent protein fusions could be incorporated into the ß-sheet plates and microspheres formed by the CATCH(6K+/6D-) pair, demonstrating the potential to endow functionality.

Intra-articular delivery of an indoleamine 2,3-dioxygenase galectin-3 fusion protein for osteoarthritis treatment in male Lewis rats.

OBJECTIVE: Osteoarthritis (OA) is driven by low-grade inflammation, and controlling local inflammation may offer symptomatic relief. Here, we developed an indoleamine 2,3-dioxygenase and galectin-3 fusion protein (IDO-Gal3), where IDO increases the production of local anti-inflammatory metabolites and Gal3 binds carbohydrates to extend IDO's joint residence time. In this study, we evaluated IDO-Gal3's ability to alter OA-associated inflammation and pain-related behaviors in a rat model of established knee OA. METHODS: Joint residence was first evaluated with an analog Gal3 fusion protein (NanoLuc™ and Gal3, NL-Gal3) that produces luminescence from furimazine. OA was induced in male Lewis rats via a medial collateral ligament and medial meniscus transection (MCLT + MMT). At 8 weeks, NL or NL-Gal3 were injected intra-articularly (n = 8 per group), and bioluminescence was tracked for 4 weeks. Next, IDO-Gal3s's ability to modulate OA pain and inflammation was assessed. Again, OA was induced via MCLT + MMT in male Lewis rats, with IDO-Gal3 or saline injected into OA-affected knees at 8 weeks post-surgery (n = 7 per group). Gait and tactile sensitivity were then assessed weekly. At 12 weeks, intra-articular levels of IL6, CCL2, and CTXII were assessed. RESULTS: The Gal3 fusion increased joint residence in OA and contralateral knees (p < 0.0001). In OA-affected animals, both saline and IDO-Gal3 improved tactile sensitivity (p = 0.008), but IDO-Gal3 also increased walking velocities (p ≤ 0.033) and improved vertical ground reaction forces (p ≤ 0.04). Finally, IDO-Gal3 decreased intra-articular IL6 levels within the OA-affected joint (p = 0.0025). CONCLUSION: Intra-articular IDO-Gal3 delivery provided long-term modulation of joint inflammation and pain-related behaviors in rats with established OA.

Intra-Articular Delivery of an Indoleamine 2,3-Dioxygenase Galectin-3 Fusion Protein for Osteoarthritis Treatment in Male Lewis Rats.

Objective : Controlling joint inflammation can improve osteoarthritis (OA) symptoms; however, current treatments often fail to provide long-term effects. We have developed an indoleamine 2,3-dioxygenase and galectin-3 fusion protein (IDO-Gal3). IDO converts tryptophan to kynurenines, directing the local environment toward an anti-inflammatory state; Gal3 binds carbohydrates and extends IDO's joint residence time. In this study, we evaluated IDO-Gal3's ability to alter OA-associated inflammation and pain-related behaviors in a rat model of established knee OA. Methods : Joint residence was first evaluated with an analog Gal3 fusion protein (NanoLuc™ and Gal3, NL-Gal3) that produces luminescence from furimazine. OA was induced in male Lewis rats via a medial collateral ligament and medial meniscus transection (MCLT+MMT). At 8 weeks, NL or NL-Gal3 were injected intra-articularly (n=8 per group), and bioluminescence was tracked for 4 weeks. Next, IDO-Gal3's ability to modulate OA pain and inflammation was assessed. Again, OA was induced via MCLT+MMT in male Lewis rats, with IDO-Gal3 or saline injected into OA-affected knees at 8 weeks post-surgery (n=7 per group). Gait and tactile sensitivity were then assessed weekly. At 12 weeks, intra-articular levels of IL6, CCL2, and CTXII were assessed. Results : The Gal3 fusion increased joint residence in OA and contralateral knees (p<0.0001). In OA-affected animals, IDO-Gal3 improved tactile sensitivity (p=0.002), increased walking velocities (p≤0.033), and improved vertical ground reaction forces (p≤0.04). Finally, IDO-Gal3 decreased intra-articular IL6 levels within the OA-affected joint (p=0.0025). Conclusion : Intra-articular IDO-Gal3 delivery provided long-term modulation of joint inflammation and pain-related behaviors in rats with established OA.

Suppression of local inflammation via galectin-anchored indoleamine 2,3-dioxygenase.

The treatment of chronic inflammation with systemically administered anti-inflammatory treatments is associated with moderate-to-severe side effects, and the efficacy of locally administered drugs is short-lived. Here we show that inflammation can be locally suppressed by a fusion protein of the immunosuppressive enzyme indoleamine 2,3-dioxygenase 1 (IDO) and galectin-3 (Gal3). Gal3 anchors IDO to tissue, limiting the diffusion of IDO-Gal3 away from the injection site. In rodent models of endotoxin-induced inflammation, psoriasis, periodontal disease and osteoarthritis, the fusion protein remained in the inflamed tissues and joints for about 1 week after injection, and the amelioration of local inflammation, disease progression and inflammatory pain in the animals were concomitant with homoeostatic preservation of the tissues and with the absence of global immune suppression. IDO-Gal3 may serve as an immunomodulatory enzyme for the control of focal inflammation in other inflammatory conditions.

Computational Design and Experimental Validation of ACE2-Derived Peptides as SARS-CoV-2 Receptor Binding Domain Inhibitors.

The COVID-19 pandemic has caused significant social and economic disruption across the globe. Cellular entry of SARS-CoV-2 into the human body is mediated via binding of the Receptor Binding Domain (RBD) on the viral Spike protein (SARS-CoV-2 RBD) to Angiotensin-Converting Enzyme 2 (ACE2) expressed on host cells. Molecules that can disrupt ACE2:RBD interactions are attractive therapeutic candidates to prevent virus entry into human cells. A computational strategy that combines our Peptide Binding Design (PepBD) algorithm with atomistic molecular dynamics simulations was used to design new inhibitory peptide candidates via sequence iteration starting with a 23-mer peptide, referred to as SBP1. SBP1 is derived from a region of the ACE2 Peptidase Domain α1 helix that binds to the SARS-CoV-2 RBD of the initial Wuhan-Hu-1 strain. Three peptides demonstrated a solution-phase RBD-binding dissociation constant in the micromolar range during tryptophan fluorescence quenching experiments, one peptide did not bind, and one was insoluble at micromolar concentrations. However, in competitive ELISA assays, none of these peptides could outcompete ACE2 binding to SARS-CoV-2-RBD up to concentrations of 50 µM, similar to the parent SBP1 peptide which also failed to outcompete ACE2:RBD binding. Molecular dynamics simulations suggest that P4 would have a good binding affinity for the RBD domain of Beta-B.1.351, Gamma-P.1, Kappa-B.1.617.1, Delta-B.1.617.2, and Omicron-B.1.1.529 variants, but not the Alpha variant. Consistent with this, P4 bound Kappa-B.1.617.1 and Delta-B.1.617.2 RBD with micromolar affinity in tryptophan fluorescence quenching experiments. Collectively, these data show that while relatively short unstructured peptides can bind to SARS-CoV-2 RBD with moderate affinity, they are incapable of outcompeting the strong interactions between RBD and ACE2.

Heterogeneous protein co-assemblies with tunable functional domain stoichiometry.

In nature, the precise heterogeneous co-assembly of different protein domains gives rise to supramolecular machines that perform complex functions through the co-integrated activity of the individual protein subunits. A synthetic approach capable of mimicking this process would afford access to supramolecular machines with new or improved functional capabilities. Here we show that the distinct peptide strands of a heterotrimeric α-helical coiled-coil (i.e., peptides "A", "B", and "C") can be used as fusion tags for heterogeneous co-assembly of proteins into supramolecular structures with tunable subunit stoichiometry. In particular, we demonstrate that recombinant fusion of A with NanoLuc luciferase (NL-A), B with superfolder green fluorescent protein (sfGFP-B), and C with mRuby (mRuby-C) enables formation of ternary complexes capable of simultaneously emitting blue, green, and red light via sequential bioluminescence and fluorescence resonance energy transfer (BRET/FRET). Fusion of galectin-3 onto the C-terminus of NL-A, sfGFP-B, and mRuby-C endows the ternary complexes with lactose-binding affinity that can be tuned by varying the number of galectin-3 domains integrated into the complex from one to three, while maintaining BRET/FRET function. The modular nature of the fusion protein design, the precise control of domain stoichiometry, and the multiplicity afforded by the three-stranded coiled-coil scaffold provides access to a greater range of subunit combinations than what is possible with heterodimeric coiled-coils used previously. We envision that access to this expanded range of co-integrated protein domain diversity will be advantageous for future development of designer supramolecular machines for therapeutic, diagnostic, and biotechnology applications.

Experimental and Computational Models of Transport of Galectin-3 Through Glycosylated Matrix.

Altered extracellular matrix (ECM) production is a hallmark of many fibroproliferative diseases, including certain cancers. The high incidence of glycan-rich components within altered ECM makes the use of glycan-binding proteins such as Galectin-3 (G3) a promising therapeutic strategy. The complexity of ECM as a rich 3D network of proteins with varied glycosylation states makes it challenging to determine the retention of glycan-binding proteins in altered ECM environments. Computational models capable of predicting the transport of glycan-binding proteins in altered ECM can benefit the design and testing of such proteins and associated novel therapeutic strategies. However, such computational models require many kinetic parameters that cannot be estimated from traditional 2D pharmacokinetic assays. To validate transport properties of G3 in 3D ECM constructs, we developed a species transport model that includes diffusion and matrix-binding components to predict retention of G3 fusion proteins in glycan-rich ECM. By iteratively comparing our computational model to experimental results, we are able to determine a reasonable range of parameters for a robust computational model of G3 transport. We anticipate this overall approach to building a data-driven model is translatable to other ECM-targeting therapeutic strategies.

Engineering ß-Sheet Peptide Coassemblies for Biomaterial Applications.

Peptide coassembly, wherein at least two different peptides interact to form multicomponent nanostructures, is an attractive approach for generating functional biomaterials. Current efforts seek to design pairs of peptides, A and B, that form nanostructures (e.g., ß-sheets with ABABA-type ß-strand patterning) while resisting self-assembly (e.g., AAAAA-type or BBBBB-type ß-sheets). To confer coassembly behavior, most existing designs have been based on highly charged variants of known self-assembling peptides; like-charge repulsion limits self-assembly while opposite-charge attraction promotes coassembly. Recent analyses using solid-state NMR and coarse-grained simulations reveal that preconceived notions of structure and molecular organization are not always correct. This perspective highlights recent advances and key challenges to understanding and controlling peptide coassembly.

Site-Specific Cross-Linking of Galectin-1 Homodimers via Poly(ethylene glycol) Bismaleimide.

INTRODUCTION: The promise of the natural immunoregulator, Galectin-1 (Gal1), as an immunomodulatory therapeutic is challenged by its unstable homodimeric conformation. Previously, a Gal1 homodimer stabilized via covalent poly(ethylene glycol) diacrylate (PEGDA) cross-linking demonstrated higher activity relative to the non-covalent homodimer. METHODS: Here, we report Gal1 homodimers formed using an alternative thiol-Michael addition linker chemistry. RESULTS: Poly(ethylene glycol) bismaleimide (PEGbisMal) reacted with Gal1 at multiple sites with greater efficiency than PEGDA. However, multiple PEGbisMal molecules were conjugated to Gal1 C130, a Gal1 mutant with one surface cysteine (cys-130) and two cysteines thought to be buried in the solvent-inaccessible protein core (cys-42 and cys-60). Site-directed mutagenesis demonstrated that cys-60 was the site at which additional PEGbisMal molecules were conjugated onto Gal1 C130. Compared to WT-Gal1, Gal1 C130 had low activity for inducing Jurkat T cell death, characterized by phosphatidylserine exposure and membrane permeability. PEG cross-linking could restore the function of Gal1 C130, such that at high concentrations Gal1 C130 cross-linked by PEGbisMal had higher activity than both WT-Gal1 and Gal1 C130 cross-linked by PEGDA. Mutating cys-42 and cys-60 to serines in Gal1 C130 did not affect the cell death signaling activity of the Gal1 C130 homodimer cross-linked by PEGbisMal. PEGylated Gal1 C130 variants also eliminated the need for a reducing agent, such as dithiothreitol, which is required to maintain WT-Gal1 signaling activity. CONCLUSION: Collectively, these data demonstrate that thiol-Michael addition bioconjugation leads to a PEG-cross-linked Gal1 homodimer with improved extracellular signaling activity that does not require a reducing environment to be functional.

The Crossroads of Glycoscience, Infection, and Immunology.

Advances in experimental capabilities in the glycosciences offer expanding opportunities for discovery in the broad areas of immunology and microbiology. These two disciplines overlap when microbial infection stimulates host immune responses and glycan structures are central in the processes that occur during all such encounters. Microbial glycans mediate host-pathogen interactions by acting as surface receptors or ligands, functioning as virulence factors, impeding host immune responses, or playing other roles in the struggle between host and microbe. In the context of the host, glycosylation drives cell-cell interactions that initiate and regulate the host response and modulates the effects of antibodies and soluble immune mediators. This perspective reports on a workshop organized jointly by the National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases and the National Institute of Dental and Craniofacial Research in May 2020. The conference addressed the use of emerging glycoscience tools and resources to advance investigation of glycans and their roles in microbe-host interactions, immune-mediated diseases, and immune cell recognition and function. Future discoveries in these areas will increase fundamental scientific understanding and have the potential to improve diagnosis and treatment of infections and immune dysregulation.

De novo design of peptides that coassemble into ß sheet-based nanofibrils.

Peptides' hierarchical coassembly into nanostructures enables controllable fabrication of multicomponent biomaterials. In this work, we describe a computational and experimental approach to design pairs of charge-complementary peptides that selectively coassemble into ß-sheet nanofibers when mixed together but remain unassembled when isolated separately. The key advance is a peptide coassembly design (PepCAD) algorithm that searches for pairs of coassembling peptides. Six peptide pairs are identified from a pool of ~106 candidates via the PepCAD algorithm and then subjected to DMD/PRIME20 simulations to examine their co-/self-association kinetics. The five pairs that spontaneously aggregate in kinetic simulations selectively coassemble in biophysical experiments, with four forming ß-sheet nanofibers and one forming a stable nonfibrillar aggregate. Solid-state NMR, which is applied to characterize the coassembling pairs, suggests that the in silico peptides exhibit a higher degree of structural order than the previously reported CATCH(+/−) peptides.

Glycosylation of a Nonfibrillizing Appendage Alters the Self-Assembly Pathway of a Synthetic ß-Sheet Fibrillizing Peptide.

Owing to their biocompatibility and biodegradability, short synthetic peptides that self-assemble into elongated ß-sheet fibers (i.e., peptide nanofibers) are widely used to create biomaterials for diverse medical and biotechnology applications. Glycosylation, which is a common protein post-translational modification, is gaining interest for creating peptide nanofibers that can mimic the function of natural carbohydrate-modified proteins. Recent reports have shown that glycosylation can disrupt the fibrillization of natural amyloid-forming peptides. Here, using transmission electron microscopy, fluorescence microscopy, and thioflavin T spectroscopy, we show that glycosylation at a site external to the fibrillization domain can alter the self-assembly pathway of a synthetic fibrillizing peptide, NSGSGQQKFQFQFEQQ (NQ11). Specifically, an NQ11 variant modified with N-linked N-acetylglucosamine, N(GlcNAc)SGSG-Q11 (GQ11), formed ß-sheet nanofibers more slowly than NQ11 in deionized water (pH 5.8), which correlated to the tendency of GQ11 to form a combination of short fibrils and nonfibrillar aggregates, whereas NQ11 formed extended nanofibers. Acidic phosphate buffer slowed the rate of GQ11 fibrillization and altered the morphology of the structures formed yet had no effect on NQ11 fibrillization rate or morphology. The buffer ionic strength had no effect on the fibrillization rate of either peptide, while the diphosphate anion had a similar effect on the rate of fibrillization of both peptides. Collectively, these data demonstrate that a glycan moiety located external to the ß-sheet fibrillizing domain can alter the pH-dependent self-assembly pathway of a synthetic peptide, leading to significant changes in the fibril mass and morphology of the structures formed. These observations add to the understanding of the effect of glycosylation on peptide self-assembly and should guide future efforts to develop biomaterials from synthetic ß-sheet fibrillizing glycopeptides.

Chondroitinase ABC/galectin-3 fusion proteins with hyaluronan-based hydrogels stabilize enzyme and provide targeted enzyme activity for neural applications.

Objective. Chondroitinase ABC (ChABC) has emerged as a promising therapeutic agent for central nervous system regeneration. Despite multiple beneficial outcomes for regeneration, translation of this enzyme is challenged by poor pharmacokinetics, localization, and stability.Approach. This study explored the function andin vitroapplication of engineered ChABC fused to galectin-3 (Gal3). Two previously developed ChABC-Gal3 oligomers (monomeric and trimeric) were evaluated for functionality and kinetics, then applied to anin vitrocellular outgrowth model using dorsal root ganglia (DRGs). The fusions were combined with two formulations of hyaluronan (HA)-based scaffolds to determine the extent of active enzyme release compared to wild type (WT) ChABC.Main Results. Monomeric and trimeric ChABC-Gal3 maintained digestive capabilities with kinetic properties that were substrate-dependent for chondroitin sulfates A, B, and C. The fusions had longer half-lives at 37 °C on the order of seven fold for monomer and twelve fold for trimer compared to WT. Both fusions were also effective at restoring DRG outgrowthin vitro. To create a combination approach, two triple-component hydrogels containing modified HA were formulated to match the mechanical properties of native spinal cord tissue and to support astrocyte viability (>80%) and adhesion. The hydrogels included collagen-I and laminin mixed with either 5 mg ml-1of glycidyl methacrylate HA or 3 mg ml-1Hystem. When combined with scaffolds, ChABC-Gal3 release time was lengthened compared to WT. Both fusions had measurable enzymatic activity for at least 10 d when incorporated in gels, compared to WT that lost activity after 1 d. These longer term release products from gels maintained adequate function to promote DRG outgrowth.Significance. Results of this study demonstrated cohesive benefits of two stabilized ChABC-Gal3 oligomers in combination with HA-based scaffolds for neural applications. Significant improvements to ChABC stability and release were achieved, meriting future studies of ChABC-Gal3/hydrogel combinations to target neural regeneration.

Physical tuning of galectin-3 signaling.

Galectin-3 (Gal3) exhibits dynamic oligomerization and promiscuous binding, which can lead to concomitant activation of synergistic, antagonistic, or noncooperative signaling pathways that alter cell behavior. Conferring signaling pathway selectivity through mutations in the Gal3-glycan binding interface is challenged by the abundance of common carbohydrate types found on many membrane glycoproteins. Here, employing alpha-helical coiled-coils as scaffolds to create synthetic Gal3 constructs with defined valency, we demonstrate that oligomerization can physically regulate extracellular signaling activity of Gal3. Constructs with 2 to 6 Gal3 subunits ("Dimer," "Trimer," "Tetramer," "Pentamer," "Hexamer") demonstrated glycan-binding properties and cell death-inducing potency that scaled with valency. Dimer was the minimum functional valency. Unlike wild-type Gal3, which signals apoptosis and mediates agglutination, synthetic Gal3 constructs induced cell death without agglutination. In the presence of CD45, Hexamer was distributed on the cell membrane, whereas it clustered in absence of CD45 via membrane glycans other than those found on CD7. Wild-type Gal3, Pentamer, and Hexamer required CD45 and CD7 to signal apoptosis, and the involvement of caspases in apoptogenic signaling was increased in absence of CD45. However, wild-type Gal3 depended on caspases to signal apoptosis to a greater extent than Hexamer, which had greater caspase dependence than Pentamer. Diminished caspase activation downstream of Hexamer signaling led to decreased pannexin-1 hemichannel opening and interleukin-2 secretion, events facilitated by the increased caspase activation downstream of wild-type Gal3 signaling. Thus, synthetic fixation of Gal3 multivalency can impart physical control of its outside-in signaling activity by governing membrane glycoprotein engagement and, in turn, intracellular pathway activation.

CATCH Peptides Coassemble into Structurally Heterogeneous ß-Sheet Nanofibers with Little Preference to ß-Strand Alignment.

Coassembling peptides offer an additional degree of freedom in the design of nanostructured biomaterials when compared to analogous self-assembling peptides. Yet, our understanding of how amino acid sequences encodes coassembled nanofiber structure is limited. Prior work on a charge-complementary pair, CATCH+ and CATCH- peptides, detected like-peptide nearest neighbors (CATCH+:CATCH+ and CATCH-:CATCH-) within coassembled ß-sheet nanofibers; these self-associated peptide pairs marked a departure from an "ideal" coassembled structure. In this work, we employ solid-state NMR, isotope-edited FTIR, and coarse-grained molecular dynamics simulations to evaluate the alignment of ß-strands within CATCH peptide nanofibers. Both experimental and computational results suggest that CATCH molecules coassemble into structurally heterogeneous nanofibers, which is consistent with our observations in another coassembling system, the King-Webb peptides. Within ß-sheet nanofibers, ß-strands were found to have nearest neighbors aligned in-register parallel, in-register antiparallel, and out-of-register. In comparison to the King-Webb peptides, CATCH nanofibers exhibit a greater degree of structural heterogeneity. By comparing the amino acid sequences of CATCH and King-Webb peptides, we can begin to unravel sequence-to-structure relationships, which may encode more precise coassembled ß-sheet nanostructures.

Intracellular immune sensing promotes inflammation via gasdermin D-driven release of a lectin alarmin.

Inflammatory caspase sensing of cytosolic lipopolysaccharide (LPS) triggers pyroptosis and the concurrent release of damage-associated molecular patterns (DAMPs). Collectively, DAMPs are key determinants that shape the aftermath of inflammatory cell death. However, the identity and function of the individual DAMPs released are poorly defined. Our proteomics study revealed that cytosolic LPS sensing triggered the release of galectin-1, a ß-galactoside-binding lectin. Galectin-1 release is a common feature of inflammatory cell death, including necroptosis. In vivo studies using galectin-1-deficient mice, recombinant galectin-1 and galectin-1-neutralizing antibody showed that galectin-1 promotes inflammation and plays a detrimental role in LPS-induced lethality. Mechanistically, galectin-1 inhibition of CD45 (Ptprc) underlies its unfavorable role in endotoxin shock. Finally, we found increased galectin-1 in sera from human patients with sepsis. Overall, we uncovered galectin-1 as a bona fide DAMP released as a consequence of cytosolic LPS sensing, identifying a new outcome of inflammatory cell death.

Harnessing molecular recognition for localized drug delivery.

A grand challenge in drug delivery is providing the right dose, at the right anatomic location, for the right duration of time to maximize therapeutic efficacy while minimizing off-target toxicity and other deleterious side-effects. Two general modalities are receiving broad attention for localized drug delivery. In the first, referred to as "targeted accumulation", drugs or drug carriers are engineered to have targeting moieties that promote their accumulation at a specific tissue site from circulation. In the second, referred to as "local anchoring", drugs or drug carriers are inserted directly into the tissue site of interest where they persist for a specified duration of time. This review surveys recent advances in harnessing molecular recognition between proteins, peptides, nucleic acids, lipids, and carbohydrates to mediate targeted accumulation and local anchoring of drugs and drug carriers.