Controlled human exposures to diesel exhaust or particle-depleted diesel exhaust with allergen modulates transcriptomic responses in the lung.

The evidence associating traffic-related air pollution (TRAP) with allergic asthma is growing, but the underlying mechanisms for this association remain unclear. The airway epithelium is the primary tissue exposed to TRAP, hence understanding its interactions with TRAP and allergen is important. Diesel exhaust (DE), a paradigm of TRAP, consists of particulate matter (PM) and gases. Modern diesel engines often have catalytic diesel particulate filters to reduce PM output, but these may increase gaseous concentrations, and their benefits on human health cannot be assumed. We conducted a randomized, double-blinded, crossover study using our unique in vivo human exposure system to investigate the effects of DE and allergen co-exposure, with or without particle depletion as a proxy for catalytic diesel particulate filters, on the airway epithelial transcriptome. Participants were exposed for 2 h before an allergen inhalation challenge, with each receiving filtered air and saline (FA-S), filtered air and allergen (FA-A), DE and allergen (DE-A), or particle-depleted DE and allergen (PDDE-A), over four different occasions, each separated by a 4-week washout period. Endobronchial brushings were collected 48 h after each exposure, and total RNA was sequenced. Differentially expressed genes (DEGs) were identified using DESeq2, followed by GO enrichment and pathway analysis. FA-A, DE-A, and PDDE-A exposures significantly modulated genes relative to FA-S, with 462 unique DEGs identified. FA-A uniquely modulated the highest number (↑178, ↓155), followed by DE-A (↑44, ↓23), and then PDDE-A exposure (↑15, ↓2); 6 DEGs (↑4, ↓2) were modulated by all three conditions. Exposure to PDDE-A resulted in modulation of 285 DEGs compared to DE-A exposure, further revealing 26 biological process GO terms, including "cellular response to chemokine" and "inflammatory response". The transcriptional epithelial response to diesel exhaust and allergen co-exposure is enriched in inflammatory mediators, the pattern of which is altered upon particle depletion.

Variants in transient receptor potential channels and toll-like receptors modify airway responses to allergen and air pollution: a randomized controlled response human exposure study.

BACKGROUND: Environmental co-exposure to allergen and traffic-related air pollution is common globally and contributes to the exacerbation of respiratory diseases. Individual responses to environmental insults remain variable due to gene-environment interactions. OBJECTIVE: This study examined whether single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) in lung cell surface receptor genes modifies lung function change and immune cell recruitment in allergen-sensitized individuals exposed to diesel exhaust (DE) and allergen. METHODS: In this randomized, double-blinded, four-arm, crossover study, 13 allergen-sensitized participants underwent allergen inhalation challenge following a 2-hour exposure to DE, particle-depleted diesel exhaust (PDDE) or filtered air (FA). Lung function tests and bronchoscopic sample collection were performed up to 48 h after exposures. Transient receptor potential channel (TRPA1 and TRPV1) and toll-like receptor (TLR2 and TLR4) risk alleles were used to construct an unweighted genetic risk score (GRS). Exposure-by-GRS interactions were tested using mixed-effects models. RESULTS: In participants with high GRS, allergen exposure was associated with an increase in airway hyperresponsiveness (AHR) when co-exposed to PDDE (p = 0.03) but not FA or DE. FA and PDDE also were associated with a relative increase in macrophages and decrease in lymphocytes in bronchoalveolar lavage. CONCLUSIONS: TRPs and TLRs variants are associated with increased AHR and altered immune cellularity in allergen-exposed individuals. This effect is blunted by DE exposure, suggesting greater influence of unmeasured gene variants as primary meditators of a particulate-rich co-exposure. TRIAL REGISTRATION: The study was registered with ClinicalTrials.gov on December 20, 2013 (NCT02017431).

Lung adenocarcinoma promotion by air pollutants.

A complete understanding of how exposure to environmental substances promotes cancer formation is lacking. More than 70 years ago, tumorigenesis was proposed to occur in a two-step process: an initiating step that induces mutations in healthy cells, followed by a promoter step that triggers cancer development1. Here we propose that environmental particulate matter measuring ≤2.5 µm (PM2.5), known to be associated with lung cancer risk, promotes lung cancer by acting on cells that harbour pre-existing oncogenic mutations in healthy lung tissue. Focusing on EGFR-driven lung cancer, which is more common in never-smokers or light smokers, we found a significant association between PM2.5 levels and the incidence of lung cancer for 32,957 EGFR-driven lung cancer cases in four within-country cohorts. Functional mouse models revealed that air pollutants cause an influx of macrophages into the lung and release of interleukin-1ß. This process results in a progenitor-like cell state within EGFR mutant lung alveolar type II epithelial cells that fuels tumorigenesis. Ultradeep mutational profiling of histologically normal lung tissue from 295 individuals across 3 clinical cohorts revealed oncogenic EGFR and KRAS driver mutations in 18% and 53% of healthy tissue samples, respectively. These findings collectively support a tumour-promoting role for  PM2.5 air pollutants  and provide impetus for public health policy initiatives to address air pollution to reduce disease burden.

Effect of traffic-related air pollution on cough in adults with polymorphisms in several cough-related genes.

With prevalent global air pollution, individuals with certain genetic predispositions and sensitivities are at of higher risk of developing respiratory symptoms including chronic cough. Studies to date have relied on patient-filled questionnaires in epidemiological studies to evaluate the gene-by-environment interactions. In a controlled human exposure study, we evaluated whether genetic risk score (GRS) based on cough-related single-nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) are associated with a cough count over 24 h post-exposure to diesel exhaust (DE), a model for traffic-related air pollution. DE is a mixture of several known air pollutants including PM2.5, CO, NO, NO2, and volatile organic compounds. Under closely observed circumstances, we determined that GRS constructed from 7 SNPs related to TRPA1, TRPV1, and NK-2R were correlated with cough count. Selection of channels were based on prior knowledge that SNPs in these channels lead to acute airway inflammation as a result of their increased sensitivity to particulate matter. We performed a linear regression analysis and found a significant, positive correlation between GRS and cough count following DE exposure (p = 0.002, R2 = 0.61) and filtered air (FA) exposure (p = 0.028, R2 = 0.37). Although that correlation was stronger for DE than for FA, we found no significant exposure-by-GRS interaction. In summary, cough-relevant GRS was associated with a higher 24 h cough count in a controlled setting, suggesting that individuals with a high GRS may be more susceptible to developing cough regardless of their exposure. The trend towards this susceptibility being more prominent in the context of traffic-related air pollution remains to be confirmed.Trial registration: ClinicalTrial.gov NCT02236039; NCT0223603. Registered on August 11, 2014, https://clinicaltrials.gov/ct2/show/NCT02236039 .

Dibutyl phthalate exposure alters T-cell subsets in blood from allergen-sensitized volunteers.

Phthalates are ubiquitous environmental contaminants associated with allergic disease in epidemiological and animal studies. This investigation aims to support these associations by interrogating systemic immune effects in allergen-sensitized volunteers after controlled indoor air exposure to a known concentration of dibutyl phthalate (DBP). The phthalate-allergen immune response (PAIR) study enrolled 16 allergen-sensitized participants to a double-blinded, randomized, crossover exposure to two conditions (DBP or control air for 3 hr), each followed immediately by inhaled allergen challenge. Peripheral blood immune cell composition and activation along with inflammatory mediators were measured before and after exposure. DBP exposure prior to the inhaled allergen challenge increased the percentage of CD4+ T helper cells and decreased the percentage of regulatory T cells (3 hr and 20 hr post-exposure), while only modest overall effects were observed for inflammatory mediators. The cells and mediators affected by the phthalate exposure were generally not overlapping with the endpoints affected by allergen inhalation alone. Thus, in distinction to our previously published effects on lung function, DBP appears to alter endpoints in peripheral blood that are not necessarily enhanced by allergen alone. Further studies are needed to clarify the role of phthalate-induced systemic effects in disease pathogenesis.

Potentiation of long-acting ß2-agonist and glucocorticoid responses in human airway epithelial cells by modulation of intracellular cAMP.

INTRODUCTION: Over 300 million people in the world live with asthma, resulting in 500,000 annual global deaths with future increases expected. It is estimated that around 50-80% of asthma exacerbations are due to viral infections. Currently, a combination of long-acting beta agonists (LABA) for bronchodilation and glucocorticoids (GCS) to control lung inflammation represent the dominant strategy for the management of asthma, however, it is still sub-optimal in 35-50% of moderate-severe asthmatics resulting in persistent lung inflammation, impairment of lung function, and risk of mortality. Mechanistically, LABA/GCS combination therapy results in synergistic efficacy mediated by intracellular cyclic adenosine monophosphate (cAMP). HYPOTHESIS: Increasing intracellular cAMP during LABA/GCS combination therapy via inhibiting phosphodiesterase 4 (PDE4) and/or blocking the export of cAMP by ATP Binding Cassette Transporter C4 (ABCC4), will potentiate anti-inflammatory responses of mainstay LABA/GCS therapy. METHODS: Expression and localization experiments were performed using in situ hybridization and immunohistochemistry in human lung tissue from healthy subjects, while confirmatory transcript and protein expression analyses were performed in primary human airway epithelial cells and cell lines. Intervention experiments were performed on the human airway epithelial cell line, HBEC-6KT, by pre-treatment with combinations of LABA/GCS with PDE4 and/or ABCC4 inhibitors followed by Poly I:C or imiquimod challenge as a model for viral stimuli. Cytokine readouts for IL-6, IL-8, CXCL10/IP-10, and CCL5/RANTES were quantified by ELISA. RESULTS: Using archived human lung and human airway epithelial cells, ABCC4 gene and protein expression were confirmed in vitro and in situ. LABA/GCS attenuation of Poly I:C or imiquimod-induced IL-6 and IL-8 were potentiated with ABCC4 and PDE4 inhibition, which was greater when ABCC4 and PDE4 inhibition was combined. Modulation of cAMP levels had no impact on LABA/GCS modulation of Poly I:C-induced CXCL10/IP-10 or CCL5/RANTES. CONCLUSION: Modulation of intracellular cAMP levels by PDE4 or ABCC4 inhibition potentiates LABA/GCS efficacy in human airway epithelial cells challenged with viral stimuli. The data suggest further exploration of the value of adding cAMP modulators to mainstay LABA/GCS therapy in asthma for potentiated anti-inflammatory efficacy.

Effects of environmental air pollutants on CFTR expression and function in human airway epithelial cells.

The airway epithelium is exposed to a variety of air pollutants, which have been associated with the onset and worsening of respiratory diseases. These air pollutants can vary depending on their composition and associated chemicals, leading to different molecular interactions and biological effects. Mucociliary clearance is an important host defense mechanism against environmental air pollutants and this process is regulated by various ion transporters including the cystic fibrosis transmembrane conductance regulator (CFTR). With evidence suggesting that environmental air pollutants can lead to acquired CFTR dysfunction, it may be possible to leverage therapeutic approaches used in cystic fibrosis (CF) management. The aim of our study was to test whether environmental air pollutants tobacco smoke extract, urban particulate matter, and diesel exhaust particles lead to acquired CFTR dysfunction and whether it could be rescued with pharmacological interventions. Human airway epithelial cells (Calu-3) were exposed to air pollutant extracts for 24 h, with and without pharmacological interventions, with readouts of CFTR expression and function. We demonstrate that both tobacco smoke extract and diesel exhaust particles led to acquired CFTR dysfunction and that rescue of acquired CFTR dysfunction is possible with pharmacological interventions in diesel exhaust particle models. Our study emphasizes that CFTR function is not only important in the context of CF but may also play a role in other respiratory diseases impacted by environmental air pollutants. In addition, the pharmacological interventions approved for CF management may be more broadly leveraged for chronic respiratory disease management.

Modulation of cAMP metabolism for CFTR potentiation in human airway epithelial cells.

Cystic fibrosis (CF) is a genetic disease characterized by CF transmembrane regulator (CFTR) dysfunction. With over 2000 CFTR variants identified, in addition to known patient to patient variability, there is a need for personalized treatment. The discovery of CFTR modulators has shown efficacy in certain CF populations, however there are still CF populations without valid therapeutic options. With evidence suggesting that single drug therapeutics are insufficient for optimal management of CF disease, there has been an increased pursuit of combinatorial therapies. Our aim was to test cyclic AMP (cAMP) modulation, through ATP Binding Cassette Transporter C4 (ABCC4) and phosphodiesterase-4 (PDE-4) inhibition, as a potential add-on therapeutic to a clinically approved CFTR modulator, VX-770, as a method for increasing CFTR activity. Human airway epithelial cells (Calu-3) were used to test the efficacy of cAMP modulation by ABCC4 and PDE-4 inhibition through a series of concentration-response studies. Our results showed that cAMP modulation, in combination with VX-770, led to an increase in CFTR activity via an increase in sensitivity when compared to treatment of VX-770 alone. Our study suggests that cAMP modulation has potential to be pursued as an add-on therapy for the optimal management of CF disease.

Dibutyl Phthalate Augments Allergen-induced Lung Function Decline and Alters Human Airway Immunology. A Randomized Crossover Study.

Rationale: Phthalates are a group of chemicals used in common commercial products. Epidemiological studies suggest that phthalate exposure is associated with development or worsening of allergic diseases such as asthma. However, effects of dibutyl phthalate (DBP) or other phthalates found in high concentrations in indoor air have never been examined in allergic individuals in a controlled exposure setting.Objectives: To investigate the airway effects in humans caused by inhalation of a known concentration of a single phthalate, DBP.Methods: In a randomized crossover study, 16 allergen-sensitized participants were exposed to control air or DBP for 3 hours in an environmental chamber followed immediately by an allergen inhalation challenge. Bronchoalveolar wash and lavage were obtained 24 hours after exposure. Lung function, early allergic response, airway responsiveness, inflammation, immune mediators, and immune cell phenotypes were assessed after DBP exposure.Measurements and Main Results: DBP exposure increased the early allergic response (21.4% decline in FEV1 area under the curve, P = 0.03). Airway responsiveness was increased by 48.1% after DBP exposure in participants without baseline hyperresponsiveness (P = 0.01). DBP increased the recruitment of BAL total macrophages by 4.6% (P = 0.07), whereas the M2 macrophage phenotype increased by 46.9% (P = 0.04). Airway immune mediator levels were modestly affected by DBP.Conclusions: DBP exposure augmented allergen-induced lung function decline, particularly in those without baseline hyperresponsiveness, and exhibited immunomodulatory effects in the airways of allergic individuals. This is the first controlled human exposure study providing biological evidence for phthalate-induced effects in the airways.Clinical trial registered with www.clinicaltrials.gov (NCT02688478).

Effect of long-acting ß-agonists/glucocorticoids on human airway epithelial cell cytokine, transcriptomic and oxidative stress responses to cannabis smoke.

LABA/GC intervention in airway epithelial cells exposed to cannabis smoke reduces levels of pro-inflammatory (CXCL8) and antiviral (CXCL10) mediators, while transcriptomic signatures of neutrophil-mediated immunity and oxidative stress remain elevated http://bit.ly/2qiSQhH.

Transcriptomic and barrier responses of human airway epithelial cells exposed to cannabis smoke.

Globally, many jurisdictions are legalizing or decriminalizing cannabis, creating a potential public health issue that would benefit from experimental evidence to inform policy, government regulations, and user practices. Tobacco smoke exposure science has created a body of knowledge that demonstrates the conclusive negative impacts on respiratory health; similar knowledge remains to be established for cannabis. To address this unmet need, we performed in vitro functional and transcriptomic experiments with a human airway epithelial cell line (Calu-3) exposed to cannabis smoke, with tobacco smoke as a positive control. Demonstrating the validity of our in vitro model, tobacco smoke induced gene expression profiles that were significantly correlated with gene expression profiles from published tobacco exposure datasets from bronchial brushings and primary human airway epithelial cell cultures. Applying our model to cannabis smoke, we demonstrate that cannabis smoke induced functional and transcriptional responses that overlapped with tobacco smoke. Ontology and pathway analysis revealed that cannabis smoke induced DNA replication and oxidative stress responses. Functionally, cannabis smoke impaired epithelial cell barrier function, antiviral responses, and increased inflammatory mediator production. Our study reveals striking similarities between cannabis and tobacco smoke exposure on impairing barrier function, suppressing antiviral pathways, potentiating of pro-inflammatory mediators, and inducing oncogenic and oxidative stress gene expression signatures. Collectively our data suggest that cannabis smoke exposure is not innocuous and may possess many of the deleterious properties of tobacco smoke, warranting additional studies to support public policy, government regulations, and user practices.

An update on immunologic mechanisms in the respiratory mucosa in response to air pollutants.

Every day, we breathe in more than 10,000 L of air that contains a variety of air pollutants that can pose negative consequences to lung health. The respiratory mucosa formed by the airway epithelium is the first point of contact for air pollution in the lung, functioning as a mechanical and immunologic barrier. Under normal circumstances, airway epithelial cells connected by tight junctions secrete mucus, airway surface lining fluid, host defense peptides, and antioxidants and express innate immune pattern recognition receptors to respond to inhaled foreign substances and pathogens. Under conditions of air pollution exposure, the defenses of the airway epithelium are compromised by reductions in barrier function, impaired host defense to pathogens, and exaggerated inflammatory responses. Central to the mechanical and immunologic changes induced by air pollution are activation of redox-sensitive pathways and a role for antioxidants in normalizing these negative effects. Genetic variants in genes important in epithelial cell function and phenotype contribute to a diversity of responses to air pollution in the population at the individual and group levels and suggest a need for personalized approaches to attenuate the respiratory mucosal immune responses to air pollution.

The impact of cigarette smoke exposure, COPD, or asthma status on ABC transporter gene expression in human airway epithelial cells.

ABC transporters are conserved in prokaryotes and eukaryotes, with humans expressing 48 transporters divided into 7 classes (ABCA, ABCB, ABCC, ABCD, ABDE, ABCF, and ABCG). Throughout the human body, ABC transporters regulate cAMP levels, chloride secretion, lipid transport, and anti-oxidant responses. We used a bioinformatic approach complemented with in vitro experimental methods for validation of the 48 known human ABC transporters in airway epithelial cells using bronchial epithelial cell gene expression datasets available in NCBI GEO from well-characterized patient populations of healthy subjects and individuals that smoke cigarettes, or have been diagnosed with COPD or asthma, with validation performed in Calu-3 airway epithelial cells. Gene expression data demonstrate that ABC transporters are variably expressed in epithelial cells from different airway generations, regulated by cigarette smoke exposure (ABCA13, ABCB6, ABCC1, and ABCC3), and differentially expressed in individuals with COPD and asthma (ABCA13, ABCC1, ABCC2, ABCC9). An in vitro cell culture model of cigarette smoke exposure was able to recapitulate select observed in situ changes. Our work highlights select ABC transporter candidates of interest and a relevant in vitro model that will enable a deeper understanding of the contribution of ABC transporters in the respiratory mucosa in lung health and disease.

Dibutyl phthalate modulates phenotype of granulocytes in human blood in response to inflammatory stimuli.

BACKGROUND: Phthalates are plasticizers used in many common commercial products. They are ubiquitous environmental contaminants and epidemiological studies suggest that phthalate exposure is associated with development or worsening of airway diseases. Dibutyl phthalate (DBP) is a type of phthalate, found in high concentrations in indoor air, which appears to have a high inflammatory potential. In vitro studies on innate immune cells like macrophages have shown a reduction in phagocytic and antigen-presenting capacity and decreased production of stimuli-induced cytokines after DBP exposure. OBJECTIVE: We aimed to assess how DBP may alter the in vitro cellular and humoral innate immune response to inflammatory stimuli in blood innate immune cells. METHODS: Human whole blood was stimulated with inflammatory stimuli (lipopolysaccharide (LPS), resiquimod (R848) and phorbol 12-myristate 13-acetate (PMA)) in the presence or absence of DBP. The expression of surface markers CD16, CD24, CD69 and CD14 on granulocytes and monocytes was quantified by flow cytometry analysis. The release of TNFα, IFNγ, IL8 and IL10 cytokines was measured by ELISA. RESULTS: The presence of DBP reduced the inflammatory stimuli-induced expression of CD24 on neutrophils and eosinophils and CD69 on activated eosinophils, whereas expression of CD16 on neutrophils was increased. DBP also had a dampening effect on the release of pro-inflammatory mediators TNFα and IFNγ in response to the inflammatory stimuli. CONCLUSIONS: These responses may reflect an immunosuppressive effect of DBP through impairment of immune cell function.

Regulation of xanthine dehydrogensase gene expression and uric acid production in human airway epithelial cells.

INTRODUCTION: The airway epithelium is a physical and immunological barrier that protects the pulmonary system from inhaled environmental insults. Uric acid has been detected in the respiratory tract and can function as an antioxidant or damage associated molecular pattern. We have demonstrated that human airway epithelial cells are a source of uric acid. Our hypothesis is that uric acid production by airway epithelial cells is induced by environmental stimuli associated with chronic respiratory diseases. We therefore examined how airway epithelial cells regulate uric acid production. MATERIALS AND METHODS: Allergen and cigarette smoke mouse models were performed using house dust mite (HDM) and cigarette smoke exposure, respectively, with outcome measurements of lung uric acid levels. Primary human airway epithelial cells isolated from clinically diagnosed patients with asthma and chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD) were grown in submerged cultures and compared to age-matched healthy controls for uric acid release. HBEC-6KT cells, a human airway epithelial cell line, were grown under submerged monolayer conditions for mechanistic and gene expression studies. RESULTS: HDM, but not cigarette smoke exposure, stimulated uric acid production in vivo and in vitro. Primary human airway epithelial cells from asthma, but not COPD patients, displayed elevated levels of extracellular uric acid in culture. In HBEC-6KT, production of uric acid was sensitive to the xanthine dehydrogenase (XDH) inhibitor, allopurinol, and the ATP Binding Cassette C4 (ABCC4) inhibitor, MK-571. Lastly, the pro-inflammatory cytokine combination of TNF-α and IFN-γ elevated extracellular uric acid levels and XDH gene expression in HBEC-6KT cells. CONCLUSIONS: Our results suggest that the active production of uric acid from human airway epithelial cells may be intrinsically altered in asthma and be further induced by pro-inflammatory cytokines.

Attenuating immune pathology using a microbial-based intervention in a mouse model of cigarette smoke-induced lung inflammation.

BACKGROUND: Cigarette smoke exposure is the major risk factor for developing COPD. Presently, available COPD treatments focus on suppressing inflammation and providing bronchodilation. However, these options have varying efficacy in controlling symptoms and do not reverse or limit the progression of COPD. Treatments strategies using bacterial-derived products have shown promise in diseases characterized by inflammation and immune dysfunction. This study investigated for the first time whether a novel immunotherapy produced from inactivated Klebsiella (hereafter referred to as KB) containing all the major Klebsiella macromolecules, could attenuate cigarette smoke exposure-induced immune responses. We hypothesized that KB, by re-directing damaging immune responses, would attenuate cigarette smoke-induced lung inflammation and bronchoalveolar (BAL) cytokine and chemokine production. METHODS: KB was administered via a subcutaneous injection prophylactically before initiating a 3-week acute nose-only cigarette smoke exposure protocol. Control mice received placebo injection and room air. Total BAL and differential cell numbers were enumerated. BAL and serum were analysed for 31 cytokines, chemokines, and growth factors. Lung tissue and blood were analysed for Ly6CHI monocytes/macrophages and neutrophils. Body weight and clinical scores were recorded throughout the experiment. RESULTS: We demonstrate that KB treatment attenuated cigarette smoke-induced lung inflammation as shown by reductions in levels of BAL IFNγ, CXCL9, CXCL10, CCL5, IL-6, G-CSF, and IL-17. KB additionally attenuated the quantity of BAL lymphocytes and macrophages. In parallel to the attenuation of lung inflammation, KB induced a systemic immune activation with increases in Ly6CHI monocytes/macrophages and neutrophils. CONCLUSIONS: This is the first demonstration that subcutaneous administration of a microbial-based immunotherapy can attenuate cigarette smoke-induced lung inflammation, and modulate BAL lymphocyte and macrophage levels, while inducing a systemic immune activation and mobilization. These data provide a foundation for future studies exploring how KB may be used to either reverse or prevent progression of established emphysema and small airways disease associated with chronic cigarette smoke exposure. The data suggest the intriguing possibility that KB, which stimulates rather than suppresses systemic immune responses, might be a novel means by which the course of COPD pathogenesis may be altered.

A novel microbe-based treatment that attenuates the inflammatory profile in a mouse model of allergic airway disease.

There is an unmet need for effective new and innovative treatments for asthma. It is becoming increasingly evident that bacterial stimulation can have beneficial effects at attenuating allergic airway disease through immune modulation. Our aim was to test the ability of a novel inactivated microbe-derived therapeutic based on Klebsiella (KB) in a model of allergic airway disease in mice. BALB/c mice were exposed intranasally to house dust mite (HDM) for two weeks. Mice were treated prophylactically via subcutaneous route with either KB or placebo for one week prior to HDM exposure and throughout the two week exposure period. 24 hours after the last exposure, lungs were analysed for inflammatory cell infiltrate, gene expression, cytokine levels, goblet cell metaplasia, and serum was analysed for allergen-specific serum IgE levels. HDM exposed mice developed goblet cell hyperplasia, elevated allergen-specific serum IgE, airway eosinophilia, and a concomitant increase in TH2 cytokines including IL-4, IL-13 and IL-5. Treatment with KB attenuated HDM-mediated airway eosinophilia, total bronchoalveolar lavage (BAL) cell numbers, BAL TH2 cytokine production, and goblet cell metaplasia. Our prophylactic intervention study illustrates the potential of subcutaneous treatment with bacterial derived biologics as a promising approach for allergic airway disease treatment.

Mutational and structural analysis of diffuse large B-cell lymphoma using whole-genome sequencing.

Diffuse large B-cell lymphoma (DLBCL) is a genetically heterogeneous cancer composed of at least 2 molecular subtypes that differ in gene expression and distribution of mutations. Recently, application of genome/exome sequencing and RNA-seq to DLBCL has revealed numerous genes that are recurrent targets of somatic point mutation in this disease. Here we provide a whole-genome-sequencing-based perspective of DLBCL mutational complexity by characterizing 40 de novo DLBCL cases and 13 DLBCL cell lines and combining these data with DNA copy number analysis and RNA-seq from an extended cohort of 96 cases. Our analysis identified widespread genomic rearrangements including evidence for chromothripsis as well as the presence of known and novel fusion transcripts. We uncovered new gene targets of recurrent somatic point mutations and genes that are targeted by focal somatic deletions in this disease. We highlight the recurrence of germinal center B-cell-restricted mutations affecting genes that encode the S1P receptor and 2 small GTPases (GNA13 and GNAI2) that together converge on regulation of B-cell homing. We further analyzed our data to approximate the relative temporal order in which some recurrent mutations were acquired and demonstrate that ongoing acquisition of mutations and intratumoral clonal heterogeneity are common features of DLBCL. This study further improves our understanding of the processes and pathways involved in lymphomagenesis, and some of the pathways mutated here may indicate new avenues for therapeutic intervention.