Processing children's faces in the parental brain: A meta-analysis of ERP studies.

Event-related potentials (ERPs) are an excellent tool for investigating parental neural responses to child stimuli. Using meta-analysis, we quantified the results of available studies reporting N170 or LPP/P3 ERP responses to children's faces, targeting three questions: 1) Do parents and non-parents differ in ERP responses to child faces? 2) Are parental ERP responses larger to own vs. unfamiliar child faces? 3) Are parental ERP responses to child faces associated with indicators of parenting quality, such as observed parental sensitivity? Across 23 studies (N = 1035), key findings showed 1) larger N170 amplitudes to child faces in parents than in non-parents (r = 0.19), 2) larger LPP/P3 responses to own vs. unfamiliar child faces in parents (r = 0.19), and 3) positive associations between parental LPP/P3 responses to child faces and parenting quality outcomes (r = 0.15). These results encourage further research particularly with the LPP/P3 to assess attentional-motivational processes of parenting, but also highlight the need for larger samples and more systematic assessments of associations between ERPs and parenting.

Measuring the neural correlates of the violation of social expectations: A comparison of two experimental tasks.

Evidence exists that people's brains respond differently to stimuli that violate social expectations. However, there are inconsistencies between studies in the event-related potentials (ERP) on which differential brain responses are found, as well as in the direction of the differences. Therefore, the current paper examined which of the two most frequently used tasks, the Impression Formation Task (IFT) or Implicit Association Test (IAT), provided more robust ERP components in response to the violation of gendered expectations. Both IFT and IAT paradigms were administered in a counter-balanced way among 25 young adults (age 22-31, 56% male), while brain activity was assessed with electroencephalography. The IFT and IAT specifically measured the violation of gendered expectations with regard to toy preferences and behavioral tendencies of young children. The results showed that both tasks were able to elicit relevant ERP components. Yet, the IFT evoked ERP effects of the violation of gendered expectations on all but one of the selected ERP components; the P1, N1, and LPP. The IAT only elicited different P3 amplitudes when expectations were violated. We recommend the use of IFT paradigms when studying neural processes underlying the violation of social expectations.

Does neural face processing explain effects of an attachment-based intervention on maternal sensitivity? A randomized controlled study including pre- and postintervention measures.

BACKGROUND: Although there is a large body of literature highlighting the behavioral effects of parenting interventions, studies on the neurocognitive mechanisms involved in such intervention effects remain scarce. PURPOSE: The aim of the current study was to test whether changes in neural face processing (as reflected in N170 amplitudes) would act as a mediator in the association between the Video-feedback Intervention to promote Positive Parenting and Sensitive Discipline (VIPP-SD) and maternal sensitivity. METHODS: A total of 66 mothers of whom a random 33% received the VIPP-SD and the others a "dummy" intervention participated in pre- and postintervention assessments. We recorded mothers' electroencephalographic (EEG) activity in response to photographs of children's neutral, happy, and angry facial expressions. Maternal sensitivity was observed while mothers interacted with their offspring in a semi-structured play situation. RESULTS: In contrast with our expectations, we did not find evidence for mediation of intervention effects on maternal sensitivity by the N170. CONCLUSION: We discuss that parenting support programs may yield different effects on neurocognitive processes depending on the population and provide recommendations for future research. Our study underscores the importance of reporting null findings and preregistering studies in the field of neurocognitive research.

Does maternal inhibitory control mediate effects of a parenting intervention on maternal sensitive discipline? Evidence from a randomized-controlled trial.

The quality of parenting greatly impacts child development, highlighting the importance of support programs that effectively improve parenting. Studies on successful intervention programs define their efficacy by gains in parenting and/or child development. However, much remains unknown about the internal processes that explain how parenting interventions bring about their effects. The aims of the current randomized-controlled study were to test whether the Video-feedback Intervention to promote Positive Parenting and Sensitive Discipline (VIPP-SD) improved maternal inhibitory control (1) and whether inhibitory control mediated any effects of VIPP-SD on maternal sensitive discipline (2). In total, 66 mothers of whom a random 33% received the VIPP-SD and the others a "dummy" intervention participated in pre- and post-intervention assessments. Sensitive discipline was observed during a semi-structured limit-setting situation and inhibitory control was measured using a stop-signal task. Contrary to expectations, inhibitory control improved over time in the control group and sensitive discipline did not show the expected increase in the intervention group. Results did not support mediation. We suggest that the intervention may have induced cognitive restructuring of parenting schemas, delaying improvements in post-intervention inhibitory control and sensitive discipline. Factors that may be involved in parents' susceptibility to interventions require attention in future work.

La calidad de la crianza tiene gran impacto en el desarrollo del niño, lo cual enfatiza la importancia de programas de apoyo que efectivamente mejoran la crianza. Los estudios sobre programas de intervención exitosa definen su efectividad según los logros en la crianza y/o el desarrollo del niño. Sin embargo, aún se desconoce mucho acerca de los procesos internos que explican cómo las intervenciones de crianza producen sus resultados. Las metas del presente estudio controlado al azar fueron examinar si la Intervención de Informe de Video para promover una Crianza Positiva y una Disciplina Sensible (VIPP-SD) mejoraba el control inhibitorio materno (1) y si el control inhibitorio mediaba cualesquiera efectos de VIPP-SD sobre la sensible disciplina materna (2). En total, 66 madres participaron en las evaluaciones anteriores y posteriores a la intervención; de ellas el 33% -escogidas al azar- recibió la VIPP-SD y las demás una intervención "ficticia." Se observó la disciplina sensible durante una situación semiestructurada limitada a un espacio y el control inhibitorio se midió usando una tarea con una señal de detenerse. Contrario a las expectativas, el control inhibitorio mejoró a lo largo del tiempo en el grupo de control y la disciplina sensible no mostró el esperado incremento en el grupo de intervención. Los resultados no apoyaron la mediación. Sugerimos que la intervención pudiera haber generado una restructuración cognitiva de esquemas de crianza, demorando la mejoría en el control inhibitorio y la disciplina sensible en la post intervención. Los factores que pudieran estar relacionados con la susceptibilidad de los progenitores a las intervenciones requieren atención en el trabajo futuro.

La qualité du parentage affecte énormément le développement de l'enfant, mettant en lumière l'importance des programmes de soutien qui améliorent le parentage de manière efficace. Des études sur des programmes d'intervention définissent leur efficacité par les gains dans le parentage et/ou le développement de l'enfant. Cependant il reste beaucoup à apprendre sur les processus internes qui expliquent comment l'impact des interventions de parentage. Les buts de cette étude randomisée contrôlée étaient de tester si l'intervention de rétroaction vidéo destinée à promouvoir un Parentage Positif et la Discipline Sensible (VIPP-SD en anglais) améliorait le contrôle inhibitoire maternel (1) et si le contrôle inhibitoire induisait des effets du VIPP-SD sur la discipline sensible maternelle (2). En tout 66 mères dont 33% au hasard ont reçu le VIPP-SE et les autres une intervention « factice ¼ ont participé à des évaluations pré- et post-intervention. La discipline sensible a été observée durant une situation semi-structurée de réglage de limites et le contrôle inhibitoire a été mesuré en utilisant un exercice de signal d'arrêt. Contrairement aux attentes le contrôle inhibitoire s'est amélioré au fil du temps dans le groupe contrôle et la discipline sensible n'a pas fait preuve de l'augmentation escomptée dans le groupe d'intervention. Les résultats de soutiennent pas la médiation. Nous suggérons que l'intervention pourrait avoir déclenché une restructuration cognitive des schémas de parentage, retardant les améliorations dans le contrôle inhibitoire post-intervention et la discipline sensible. Les facteurs qui peuvent être impliqués dans la susceptibilité des parents aux interventions exigent de l'attention pour le travail à venir.

Frontal EEG asymmetry in infants observing separation and comforting events: The role of infants' attachment relationship.

The development of social-cognitive abilities in infancy is subject to an intricate interaction between maturation of neural systems and environmental input. We investigated the role of infants' attachment relationship quality in shaping infants' neural responses to observed social interactions. One-hundred thirty 10-month-old infants participated in an EEG session while they watched animations involving a distressing separation event that ended with either comforting or ignoring behavior. Frontal asymmetry (FA) in the alpha range - which is indicative of approach-withdrawal tendencies - was measured with EEG. Attachment quality was assessed using the Strange Situation procedure at 12 months. Overall, infants with disorganized attachment showed a lack of right-sided - withdrawal related - FA compared to secure and insecure infants. Furthermore, only avoidant infants exhibited reduced right-sided FA responses following the separation. Contrary to our expectations, the type of response (comforting vs. ignoring) did not elicit differences in FA patterns, and attachment quality did not moderate the effects of the type of response on frontal asymmetry. Implications for research on attachment-related biases in social information processing and on the neural underpinnings of prosocial behaviors are discussed.

Attractiveness and neural processing of infant faces: effects of a facial abnormality but not dopamine.

Adults' caregiving responses toward infants may have important origins in the perception and processing of infant cues as well as the motivation to attend to these cues. Moreover, some biological processes, such as dopaminergic neurotransmission, may be crucially involved. Although infant stimuli are generally experienced as cute and rewarding, infants with a visible disability may be regarded much less favorably than others, perhaps dependent on differences in perception, motivation, and neural processing. The current study investigated effects of administered dopamine on the perceived attractiveness and neurophysiological indices of attention and processing (i.e., the P1, P2, and N170 components of the event-related potential) of infant faces with and without a cleft lip. No evidence for effects of dopamine was found, but we replicated the finding that the decreased attractiveness of infants with a cleft lip was mediated by decreased configural face processing (smaller N170 amplitudes), but not more general attentional and/or executive processing (P2). The current findings show once again the unfavorable consequences of a cleft lip, but also highlight the importance of combining and relating measures across various levels of analysis and underscore the importance of replication.

Maternal intrusiveness predicts infants' event-related potential responses to angry and happy prosody independent of infant frontal asymmetry.

Infants' social-cognitive skills first develop within the parent-infant relationship, but large differences between parents exist in the way they approach and interact with their infant. These may have important consequences for infants' social-cognitive development. The current study investigated effects of maternal sensitive and intrusive behavior on 6- to 7-month-old infants' ERP responses to a socio-emotional cue that infants are often confronted with from an early age: emotional prosody in infant-directed speech. Infants may differ in their sensitivity to environmental (including parenting) influences on development, and the current study also explored whether infants' resting frontal asymmetry conveys differential susceptibility to effects of maternal sensitivity and intrusiveness. Results revealed that maternal intrusiveness was related to the difference in infants' ERP responses to happy and angry utterances. Specifically, P2 amplitudes in response to angry sounds were less positive than those in response to happy sounds for infants with less intrusive mothers. Whether this difference reflects an enhanced sensitivity to emotional prosody or a (processing) preference remains to be investigated. No evidence for differential susceptibility was found, as infant frontal asymmetry did not moderate effects of sensitivity or intrusiveness.

Are Negative Parental Attributions Predicted by Situational Stress?: From a Theoretical Assumption Toward an Experimental Answer.

In an experimental within-subjects research design, we studied the theoretical assumption that stress predicts negative parental attributions, which until now was mainly studied using cross-sectional study designs. During home visits to 105 families, mothers and fathers were subjected to two experimental conditions and two control conditions. In the experimental conditions, parents completed the Parental Attributions of Child behavior Task (PACT, a computerized attribution task) under two different stressful conditions (i.e., cognitive load and white noise); in the control conditions, the PACT was completed without additional stressors. Furthermore, parents completed questionnaires about existing risk factors (i.e., partner-related stress, parenting stress, and abuse risk). There were no main effects of induced stress on attributions for fathers and mothers, but we found that a combination of induced situational stress (cognitive load) and high risk resulted in the most negative parental attributions in mothers. The discussion focuses on intensity and origin of stressors, comparison between mother and father attributions, implications for interventions, and possible future research directions.

Effects of the Video-feedback intervention to promote positive parenting and sensitive discipline on mothers' neural responses to child faces: A randomized controlled ERP study including pre- and post-intervention measures.

Parenting interventions have proven to be effective in enhancing positive parenting behavior and child outcomes. However, the neurocognitive mechanisms explaining the efficacy remain largely unknown. We tested effects of the Video-feedback Intervention to promote Positive Parenting and Sensitive Discipline (VIPP-SD) on mothers' neural processing of child faces. Our primary focus was on the N170 and the secondary focus on the LPP. We expected the intervention to enhance the amplitudes of both ERP components in response to emotional compared to neutral faces. A total of 66 mothers visited the lab for two identical sessions separated by 4.28 months (SD = 0.86) during which a random 33% of the mothers received the VIPP-SD. During both pre- and post-intervention sessions, mothers' electroencephalographic (EEG) activity in response to photographs of children's neutral, happy and angry facial expressions were acquired. In contrast to our expectations, we found smaller (less negative) N170 amplitudes at post-test in the intervention group. There was no intervention effect on the LPP, although overall LPP amplitudes were more positive for neutral and angry compared to happy faces. Our study shows that the N170 is affected by the VIPP-SD, suggesting that the intervention promotes efficient, less effortful face processing.Trial registration: Dutch Trial Register: NTR5312; Date registered: 3 January 2017.

Neural responses to children's faces: Test-retest reliability of structural and functional MRI.

INTRODUCTION: Functional MRI (fMRI) is commonly used to investigate the neural mechanisms underlying psychological processes and behavioral responses. However, to draw well-founded conclusions from fMRI studies, more research on the reliability of fMRI is needed. METHODS: We invited a sample of 41 female students to participate in two identical fMRI sessions, separated by 5 weeks on average. To investigate the potential effect of left-handedness on the stability of neural activity, we oversampled left-handed participants (N = 20). Inside the scanner, we presented photographs of familiar and unfamiliar children's faces preceded by neutral and threatening primes to the participants. We calculated intraclass correlations (ICCs) to investigate the test-retest reliability of peak activity in areas that showed significant activity during the first session (primary visual cortex, fusiform face area, inferior frontal gyrus, and superior temporal gyrus). In addition, we examined how many trials were needed to reliably measure the effects. RESULTS: Across all participants, only fusiform face area activity in response to faces showed good test-retest reliability (ICC = 0.71). All other test-retest reliabilities were low (0.01 ≤ ICC ≤ 0.35). Reliabilities varied only slightly with increasing numbers of trials, with no consistent increase in ICCs. Test-retest reliabilities for left-handed participants (0.28 ≤ ICC ≤0.66) were generally somewhat higher than for right-handed participants (-0.13 ≤ ICC ≤0.75), but not statistically significant. CONCLUSION: Our study shows good test-retest reliability for fusiform facer area activity in response to faces, but low test-retest reliability for other contrasts and areas.