Applying the COM-B behaviour change model to a pilot study delivering volatile pyrethroid spatial repellents and insecticide-treated clothing to forest-exposed populations in Mondulkiri Province, Cambodia.

BACKGROUND: Southeast Asia is making tremendous progress towards their 2030 malaria elimination goal but needs new interventions to stop forest malaria. This study trials two new vector control tools, a volatile pyrethroid spatial repellent (VPSR) and insecticide-treated clothing (ITC), amongst forest-exposed populations in Mondulkiri Province Cambodia to inform their potential use for eliminating forest malaria. METHODS: 21 forest-exposed individuals were given a questionnaire on their perceptions of malaria and preventive practices used, after which they trialed two products sequentially. Clothes was treated with ITC by the study team. Mixed methods were used to understand their experience, attitudes, and preferences regarding the products trialed. Quantitative data was summarized and qualitative insights were analysed using thematic analysis, applying the Capability, Opportunity, and Motivation Behaviour Change (COM-B) model and Behaviour Change Wheel Framework to identify intervention functions to support tailored product rollout amongst these populations. RESULTS: Study participants reported a need for protection from mosquito bites in outdoor and forest-exposed settings and perceived both products trialed to be effective for this purpose. The VPSR product was preferred when travel was not required, whereas ITC was preferred for ease of use when going to the forest, especially in rainy conditions. COM-B analysis identified that key enablers for use of both products included their perceived efficacy and ease of use, which required no skill or preparation. For barriers to use, the odour of ITC was sometimes perceived as being toxic, as well as its inability to protect uncovered skin from mosquito bites, while the perceived usefulness of the VPSR product trialed was limited by its water sensitivity in rainy forest settings. Intervention components to encourage appropriate and sustained use of these products include education about how to use these products and what to expect, persuasion to use them from community leaders and targeted channels, and enablement to facilitate convenient and affordable access. CONCLUSION: The rollout of VPSRs and ITC amongst forest-exposed populations can be useful for eliminating malaria in Southeast Asia. Study findings can be applied to increase product uptake among forest exposed populations in Cambodia, while manufacturers can aim to develop products that are rainproof, easy to use in forest settings, and have favourable odour profiles to target users.

An active and targeted survey reveals asymptomatic malaria infections among high-risk populations in Mondulkiri, Cambodia.

BACKGROUND: Malaria is a mosquito-borne disease that is one of the most serious public health issues globally and a leading cause of mortality in many developing countries worldwide. Knowing the prevalence of both symptomatic and asymptomatic malaria on a subnational scale allows for the estimation of the burden of parasitaemia present in the transmission system, enabling targeting and tailoring of resources towards greater impact and better use of available capacity. This study aimed to determine the PCR-based point prevalence of malaria infection, by parasite species, among three high-risk populations in Mondulkiri province, Cambodia: forest rangers, forest dwellers, and forest goers. METHODS: A cross-sectional survey was performed during the transmission season in November and December 2021. Blood samples collected on filter paper from participants (n = 1301) from all target groups were screened for Plasmodium spp using PCR. RESULTS: Malaria prevalence among all study participants was 6.7% for any Plasmodium species. Malaria prevalence in the forest ranger group was 8.1%, was 6.8% in forest goers, and 6.4% in forest dwellers; all infections were asymptomatic. Plasmodium vivax was detected in all participant groups, while the few Plasmodium falciparum infections were found in goers and dwellers. 81% of all infections were due to P. vivax, 9% were due to P. falciparum, 3% due to Plasmodium cynomolgi, and the rest (7%) remained undefined. Gender was associated with malaria infection prevalence, with male participants having higher odds of malaria infection than female participants (OR = 1.69, 95% CI 1.08-2.64). Passively collected malaria incidence data from the Cambodian government were also investigated. Health facility-reported malaria cases, based on rapid diagnostic tests, for the period Jan-Dec 2021 were 521 Plasmodium vivax (0.89% prevalence), 34 P. falciparum (0.06%) and four P. falciparum + mixed (0.01%)-a total of 559 cases (0.95%) for all of Mondulkiri. CONCLUSION: This reservoir of asymptomatic parasitaemia may be perpetuating low levels of transmission, and thus, new strategies are required to realize the goal of eliminating malaria in Cambodia by 2025.

Applying the COM-B behavior model to inform the delivery of spatial repellents and insecticide-treated clothing among forest exposed populations in Mondulkiri Province, Cambodia.

BACKGROUND: Southeast Asia is making tremendous progress towards their 2030 malaria elimination goal but needs new interventions to stop forest malaria. This study trials two new vector control tools, a volatile pyrethroid spatial repellent (VSPR) and insecticide-treated clothing (ITC), amongst forest-exposed populations in Mondulkiri Province Cambodia to inform their potential use for eliminating forest malaria. METHODS: 21 forest-exposed individuals were given a questionnaire on their perceptions of malaria and preventive practices used, after which they trialed two products sequentially. Mixed methods were used to understand their experience, attitudes, and preferences regarding the products trialed. Quantitative data was summarized and qualitative insights were analyzed using thematic analysis, applying the Capability, Opportunity, Motivation Behavior Change (COM-B) model and Behavior Change Wheel Framework to identify intervention functions to support tailored product rollout amongst these populations. RESULTS: Study participants reported a need for protection from mosquito bites in outdoor and forest-exposed settings and perceived both products trialed to be effective for this purpose. The VPSR product was preferred when travel was not required, whereas ITC was preferred for ease of use when going to the forest, especially in rainy conditions. COM-B analysis identified that key enablers for use of both products included their perceived efficacy and ease of use, which required no skill or preparation. For barriers to use, the odor of ITC was sometimes perceived as being toxic, as well as its inability to protect uncovered skin from mosquito bites, while the perceived usefulness of the VPSR product trialed was limited by its water sensitivity in rainy forest settings. Intervention components to encourage appropriate and sustained use of these products include education about how to use these products and what to expect, persuasion to use them from community leaders and targeted ads, and enablement to guarantee access. CONCLUSION: The rollout of VPSRs and ITC amongst forest-exposed populations can be useful for eliminating malaria in Southeast Asia. Study findings can be applied to increase product uptake in Cambodia, while research efforts can aim to develop products that are rainproof, easy to use in forest settings, and have favorable odor profiles to target users.

Phlebotomine sand flies (Diptera: Psychodidae) and sand fly-borne pathogens in the Greater Mekong Subregion: a systematic review.

Phlebotomine sand flies are proven or suspected vectors of several pathogens of importance, including leishmaniasis, bartonellosis and sand fly fevers. Although sand flies have a worldwide distribution, there has been limited research published on sand flies and sand fly-borne pathogens throughout the Greater Mekong Sub-region (GMS). This review followed the PRISMA guidelines to determine the biodiversity and presence of phlebotomine sand flies and their associated pathogens in the GMS, specifically Cambodia, Thailand, the Lao People's Democratic Republic (Laos), Malaysia and Vietnam. A total of 1472 records were identified by searching electronic databases, scanning reference lists of articles and consulting experts in the field. After screening of title and abstracts, 178 records remained and were further screened for original data (n = 34), not having regional data (n = 14), duplication of data (n = 4), records not available (n = 4) and no language translation available (n = 2). A total of 120 studies were then included for full review, with 41 studies on sand fly-related disease in humans, 33 studies on sand fly-related disease in animals and 54 entomological studies focused on sand flies (5 papers contained data on > 1 category), with a majority of the overall data from Thailand. There were relatively few studies on each country, with the exception of Thailand, and the studies applied different methods to investigate sand flies and sand fly-borne diseases, impacting the ability to conduct meaningful meta-analysis. The findings suggest that leishmaniasis in humans and the presence of sand fly vectors have been reported across several GMS countries over the past 100 years, with local transmission in humans confirmed in Thailand and Vietnam. Additionally, local Mundinia species are likely transmitted by biting midges. Findings from this study provide a framework for future investigations to determine the geographic distribution and risk profiles of leishmaniasis and other associated sand fly-borne disease throughout the GMS. It is recommended that researchers expand surveillance efforts across the GMS, with an emphasis placed on entomological surveys, syndromic and asymptomatic monitoring in both humans and animals and molecular characterization of sand flies and sand fly-borne pathogens, particularly in the understudied countries of Cambodia, Vietnam and Laos.

Entomological outcomes of cluster-randomised, community-driven dengue vector-suppression interventions in Kampong Cham province, Cambodia.

Cambodia has one of the highest dengue infection rates in Southeast Asia. Here we report quantitative entomological results of a large-scale cluster-randomised trial assessing the impact on vector populations of a package of vector control interventions including larvivorous guppy fish in household water containers, mosquito trapping with gravid-ovitraps, solid waste management, breeding-container coverage through community education and engagement for behavioural change, particularly through the participation of school children. These activities resulted in major reductions in Container Index, House Index, Breteau Index, Pupal Index and Adult Index (all p-values 0.002 or lower) in the Intervention Arm compared with the Control Arm in a series of household surveys conducted over a follow-up period of more than one year, although the project was not able to measure the longer-term sustainability of the interventions. Despite comparative reductions in Adult Index between the study arms, the Adult Index was higher in the Intervention Arm in the final household survey than in the first household survey. This package of biophysical and community engagement interventions was highly effective in reducing entomological indices for dengue compared with the control group, but caution is required in extrapolating the reduction in household Adult Index to a reduction in the overall population of adult Aedes mosquitoes, and in interpreting the relationship between a reduction in entomological indices and a reduction in the number of dengue cases. The package of interventions should be trialled in other locations.

Field Efficacy of Larvivorous Fish and Pyriproxyfen Combined with Community Engagement on Dengue Vectors in Cambodia: A Randomized Controlled Trial.

Evidence on the effectiveness of low-cost, sustainable biological vector control tools for Aedes mosquitoes is limited. Therefore, the purpose of this trial was to estimate the impact of guppy fish in combination with the larvicide pyriproxyfen (PPF) (Sumilarv® 2MR) and communication for behavioral impact (COMBI) activities to reduce entomological indices in Cambodia. In this cluster randomized, controlled superiority trial, 30 clusters comprised of one or more villages each was allocated in a 1:1:1 ratio to receive either 1) all three interventions (guppies, PPF, and COMBI), 2) two interventions (guppies and COMBI), or 3) control (standard vector control). Entomological surveys among 40 randomly selected households per cluster were carried out quarterly. The primary outcome was the population abundance of adult female Aedes mosquitoes trapped using adult resting collections. In the primary analysis, adult female Aedes abundance and mosquito infection rates was aggregated over follow-up time points to give a single rate per cluster. These data were analyzed by negative binomial regression, yielding abundance ratios (ARs). The number of Aedes females was reduced roughly by half compared with the control in both the guppy, PPF, and COMBI arm (AR = 0.54; 95% CI, 0.34-0.85; P = 0.0073); and the guppy and COMBI arm (AR = 0.49; 95% CI, 0.31-0.77; P = 0.0021). The effectiveness demonstrated and extremely low cost of including fish rearing in community-based health structures suggest they should be considered as a vector control tool as long as the benefits outweigh any potential environmental concerns. Sumilarv® 2MR was also highly accepted and preferred over current vector control tools used in Cambodia.

Residual Malaria Transmission in Select Countries of Asia-Pacific Region: Old Wine in a New Barrel.

BACKGROUND: Despite substantial reductions in malaria burden and improvement in case management, malaria remains a major public health challenge in the Asia-Pacific region. Residual malaria transmission (RMT) is the fraction of total transmission that persists after achievement of full operational coverage with effective insecticide-treated bed nets (ITNs)/long-lasting insecticidal nets (LLINs) and/or indoor residual spray interventions. There is a critical need to standardize and share best practices for entomological, anthropological, and product development investigative protocols to meet the challenges of RMT and elimination goals. METHODS: A systematic review was conducted to describe when and where RMT is occurring, while specifically targeting ownership and usage of ITN/LLINs, indoor residual spray application, insecticide susceptibility of vectors, and human and vector biting behavior, with a focus on nighttime activities. RESULTS: Sixty-six publications from 1995 to present met the inclusion criteria for closer review. Associations between local vector control coverage and use with behaviors of human and mosquito vectors varied by locality and circumstance. Consequently, the magnitude of RMT is insufficiently studied and analyzed with sparse estimates of individual exposure in communities, insufficient or incomplete observations of ITN/LLIN use, and the local human population movement into and from high-risk areas. CONCLUSIONS: This review identified significant gaps or deficiencies that require urgent attention, namely, developing standardized procedures and methods to estimate risk exposure beyond the peridomestic setting, analytical approaches to measure key human-vector interactions, and seasonal location-specific agricultural or forest use calendars, and establishing the collection of longitudinal human and vector data close in time and location.

Use of pyriproxyfen in control of Aedes mosquitoes: A systematic review.

Dengue is the most rapidly spreading arboviral disease in the world. The current lack of fully protective vaccines and clinical therapeutics creates an urgent need to identify more effective means of controlling Aedes mosquitos, principally Aedes aegypti, as the main vector of dengue. Pyriproxyfen (PPF) is an increasingly used hormone analogue that prevents juvenile Aedes mosquitoes from becoming adults and being incapable of transmitting dengue. The objectives of the review were to (1) Determine the effect of PPF on endpoints including percentage inhibition of emergence to adulthood, larval mortality, and resistance ratios; and (2) Determine the different uses, strengths, and limitations of PPF in control of Aedes. A systematic search was applied to Pubmed, EMBASE, Web of Science, LILACS, Global Health, and the Cochrane database of Systematic Reviews. Out of 1,369 records, 90 studies met the inclusion criteria. Nearly all fit in one of the following four categories 1) Efficacy of granules, 2) Auto-dissemination/horizontal transfer, 3) use of ultra-low volume thermal fogging (ULV), thermal fogging (TF), or fumigant technologies, and 4) assessing mosquito resistance. PPF granules had consistently efficacious results of 90-100% inhibition of emergence for up to 90 days. The evidence is less robust but promising regarding PPF dust for auto-dissemination and the use of PPF in ULV, TF and fumigants. Several studies also found that while mosquito populations were still susceptible to PPF, the lethal concentrations increased among temephos-resistant mosquitoes compared to reference strains. The evidence is strong that PPF does increase immature mortality and adult inhibition in settings represented in the included studies, however future research should focus on areas where there is less evidence (e.g. auto-dissemination, sprays) and new use cases for PPF. A better understanding of the biological mechanisms of cross-resistance between PPF, temephos, and other insecticides will allow control programs to make better informed decisions.

Ability of the Premise Condition Index to Identify Premises with Adult and Immature Aedes Mosquitoes in Kampong Cham, Cambodia.

Aedes-transmitted diseases, especially dengue, are increasing throughout the world and the main preventive methods include vector control and the avoidance of mosquito bites. A simple Premise Condition Index (PCI) categorizing shade, house, and yard conditions was previously developed to help prioritize households or geographical areas where resources are limited. However, evidence about the accuracy of the PCI is mixed. The current study aimed to contribute to a better understanding of the relevance by collecting data from 2,400 premises at four time points over 1 year in Kampong Cham, Cambodia. Regression models were then used to identify associations between PCI and Aedes adult female mosquitoes and pupae. In addition, receiver operating characteristic curves were used to measure the ability of PCI to identify premises in the top quartile of mosquito abundance. The density of adult Aedes females was positively associated with PCI at the household (ratio of means = 1.16 per point on the PCI scale) and cluster level (ratio of means = 1.54). However, the number of Aedes pupae was negatively associated with PCI at the household level (rate ratio = 0.74) and did not have a statistically significant association at the cluster level. Receiver operating characteristic curves suggest the PCI score had "rather low accuracy" (area under the ROC curve = 0.52 and 0.54) at identifying top-quartile premises in terms of adult female Aedes and pupae, respectively. These results suggest that caution is warranted in the programmatic use of PCI in areas of similar geography and mosquito abundance.

Implementation of guppy fish (Poecilia reticulata), and a novel larvicide (Pyriproxyfen) product (Sumilarv 2MR) for dengue control in Cambodia: A qualitative study of acceptability, sustainability and community engagement.

BACKGROUND: In Cambodia dengue vector control activities are focused on larviciding with temephos and pyrethroid based adulticide sprays to which Aedes have been shown to be increasingly resistant. A cluster randomized trial assessed the impact of using biological control tools (guppy fish, pyriproxyfen (PPF), and Communication for Behavioral Impact (COMBI) activities in combination), which would be used in a value comparison to traditional chemical control tools. Given these new intervention methods, a qualitative assessment was designed in order to represent the quality of understanding, acceptance, and implementation by participants. METHODOLOGY/PRINCIPAL FINDINGS: A total of 103 participants in 12 Focus Group Discussions (FGDs) and nine In-Depth Interviews (IDIs) were included in the study. The majority of participants in intervention villages (50 out of 80) preferred guppy fish over other vector control methods due to ease of use and rearing, quick reproduction and propensity to eat larvae. A substantial number of participants (11 out of 40) in intervention villages with PPF favored it due to long-lasting effectiveness, lack of smell and easy maintenance. Participants showed high demand for both interventions and were willing to pay between 100-500 riel (0.03-0.13 USD). Nearly all participants perceived that the interventions resulted in a reduction in Aedes mosquitos (both adults and immatures) and dengue cases. The presence of larvae in the water despite the use of PPF was a source of concern for some participants, although this was overcome in some cases with proper health education through health volunteers. Interpersonal communication through health volunteers was the most favorite method of transmitting prevention messages. CONCLUSIONS/SIGNIFICANCE: The community led COMBI strategy resulted in high acceptance and perceived effectiveness of the interventions in target villages. Health volunteers are an effective and accepted channel of communication to engage communities, disseminate information and promote behavioral change at the household and community level. If shown effective through corresponding entomological surveys, the interventions should be continued and further strengthened to ensure they are accessible, available and affordable.

Assessment of vaccine wastage rates, missed opportunities, and related knowledge, attitudes and practices during introduction of a second dose of measles-containing vaccine into Cambodia's national immunization program.

INTRODUCTION: Missed opportunities for vaccination (MOV) can result in inadequate protection against disease. Although healthcare provider reluctance to open multi-dose, lyophilized vaccine vials (particularly the measles-containing vaccine [MCV]) for every eligible child due to concerns about wasting vaccine is a known reason for MOV, little is known about providers' related attitudes and practices. METHODS: In 100 randomly selected health facilities and 24 districts of Cambodia, we surveyed healthcare providers and their district supervisors regarding routine vaccine administration and wastage knowledge and practices, and child caregivers (five per facility) regarding MOV. Vaccine stock management data covering six months were reviewed to calculate facility and district level wastage rates and vaccine usage patterns for six vaccines, including a recently introduced second dose of MCV (MCV2). RESULTS: Response rates were 100/100 (100%) among facility staff, 48/48 (100%) among district staff, and 436/500 (87%) among caregivers. Mean facility-level wastage rates varied from 4% for single-dose diphtheria-tetanus-pertussis-hepatitis B-Haemophilus influenzae type b vaccine to 60% for 10-dose MCV; district-level wastage rates for all vaccines were 0%. Some vaccines had lower wastage rates in large facilities compared to small facilities. The mean MCV wastage rate was the same before and immediately after MCV2 introduction. Providers reported waiting for a mean of two children prior to opening an MCV vial, and 71% of providers reported offering MCV vaccination less frequently during scheduled vaccination sessions than other vaccines. Less than 5% of caregivers reported that their child had been turned away for vaccination, most frequently (65%) for MCV. DISCUSSION: Although the MCV wastage rate in our study was in line with national targets, providers reported waiting for more than one child before opening an MCV vial, contrary to vaccine management guidelines. Future research should explore the causal links between provider practices related to vaccine wastage and their impact on vaccination coverage.

Resistance of Aedes aegypti (Diptera: Culicidae) Populations to Deltamethrin, Permethrin, and Temephos in Cambodia.

Dengue fever is a major public health concern, including 185,000 annual cases in Cambodia. Aedes aegypti is the primary vector for dengue transmission and is targeted with insecticide treatments. This study characterized the insecticide resistance status of Ae aegypti from rural and urban locations. The susceptibility to temephos, permethrin, and deltamethrin of Ae aegypti was evaluated in accordance with World Health Organization instructions. All the field populations showed lower mortality rate to temephos compared with the sensitive strain with resistance ratio 50 (RR50) varying from 3.3 to 33.78 and RR90 from 4.2 to 47 compared with the sensitive strain, demonstrating a generalized resistance of larvae to the temephos in Cambodia. Ae aegypti adult populations were highly resistant to permethrin regardless of province or rural/urban classification with an average mortality of 0.02%. Seven of the 8 field populations showed resistance to deltamethrin. These results are alarming for dengue vector control, as widespread resistance may compromise the entomological impact of larval control operations. Innovative vector control tools are needed to replace ineffective pesticides in Cambodia.

Dengue knowledge, attitudes and practices and their impact on community-based vector control in rural Cambodia.

BACKGROUND: Globally there are an estimated 390 million dengue infections per year, of which 96 million are clinically apparent. In Cambodia, estimates suggest as many as 185,850 cases annually. The World Health Organization global strategy for dengue prevention aims to reduce mortality rates by 50% and morbidity by 25% by 2020. The adoption of integrated vector management approach using community-based methods tailored to the local context is one of the recommended strategies to achieve these objectives. Understanding local knowledge, attitudes and practices is therefore essential to designing suitable strategies to fit each local context. METHODS AND FINDINGS: A Knowledge, Attitudes and Practices survey in 600 randomly chosen households was administered in 30 villages in Kampong Cham which is one of the most populated provinces of Cambodia. KAP surveys were administered to a sub-sample of households where an entomology survey was conducted (1200 households), during which Aedes larval/pupae and adult female Aedes mosquito densities were recorded. Participants had high levels of knowledge regarding the transmission of dengue, Aedes breeding, and biting prevention methods; the majority of participants believed they were at risk and that dengue transmission is preventable. However, self-reported vector control practices did not match observed practices recorded in our surveys. No correlation was found between knowledge and observed practices either. CONCLUSION: An education campaign regarding dengue prevention in this setting with high knowledge levels is unlikely to have any significant effect on practices unless it is incorporated in a more comprehensive strategy for behavioural change, such a COMBI method, which includes behavioural models as well as communication and marketing theory and practice. TRIAL REGISTRATION: ISRCTN85307778.

Determining the efficacy of guppies and pyriproxyfen (Sumilarv® 2MR) combined with community engagement on dengue vectors in Cambodia: study protocol for a randomized controlled trial.

BACKGROUND: Evidence on the effectiveness of low-cost, sustainable, biological vector-control tools for the Aedes mosquitoes is limited. Therefore, the purpose of this trial is to estimate the impact of guppy fish (guppies), in combination with the use of the larvicide pyriproxyfen (Sumilarv® 2MR), and Communication for Behavioral Impact (COMBI) activities to reduce entomological indices in Cambodia. METHODS/DESIGN: In this cluster randomized controlled, superiority trial, 30 clusters comprising one or more villages each (with approximately 170 households) will be allocated, in a 1:1:1 ratio, to receive either (1) three interventions (guppies, Sumilarv® 2MR, and COMBI activities), (2) two interventions (guppies and COMBI activities), or (3) control (standard vector control). Households will be invited to participate, and entomology surveys among 40 randomly selected households per cluster will be carried out quarterly. The primary outcome will be the population density of adult female Aedes mosquitoes (i.e., number per house) trapped using adult resting collections. Secondary outcome measures will include the House Index, Container Index, Breteau Index, Pupae Per House, Pupae Per Person, mosquito infection rate, guppy fish coverage, Sumilarv® 2MR coverage, and percentage of respondents with knowledge about Aedes mosquitoes causing dengue. In the primary analysis, adult female Aedes density and mosquito infection rates will be aggregated over follow-up time points to give a single rate per cluster. This will be analyzed by negative binomial regression, yielding density ratios. DISCUSSION: This trial is expected to provide robust estimates of the intervention effect. A rigorous evaluation of these vector-control interventions is vital to developing an evidence-based dengue control strategy and to help direct government resources. TRIAL REGISTRATION: Current Controlled Trials, ID: ISRCTN85307778 . Registered on 25 October 2015.

Reactive case-detection of malaria in Pailin Province, Western Cambodia: lessons from a year-long evaluation in a pre-elimination setting.

BACKGROUND: As momentum towards malaria elimination grows, strategies are being developed for scale-up in elimination settings. One prominent strategy, reactive case detection (RACD), involves screening and treating individuals living in close proximity to passively detected, or "index" cases. This study aims to use RACD to quantify Plasmodium parasitaemia in households of index cases, and identify risk factors for infection; these data could inform reactive screening approaches and identify target risk groups. METHODS: This study was conducted in the Western Cambodian province of Pailin between May 2013 and March 2014 among 440 households. Index participants/index cases (n = 270) and surrounding households (n = 110) were screened for Plasmodium infection with rapid diagnostic tests (RDT), microscopy and real-time polymerase chain reaction (PCR). Participants were interviewed to identify risk factors. A comparison group of 60 randomly-selected households was also screened, to compare infection levels of RACD and non-RACD households. In order to identify potential risk factors that would inform screening approaches and identify risk groups, multivariate logistic regression models were applied. RESULTS: Nine infections were identified in households of index cases (RACD approach) through RDT screening of 1898 individuals (seven Plasmodium vivax, two Plasmodium falciparum); seven were afebrile. Seventeen infections were identified through PCR screening of 1596 individuals (15 P. vivax, and 22 % P. falciparum/P. vivax mixed infections). In the control group, 25 P. falciparum infections were identified through PCR screening of 237 individuals, and no P. vivax was found. Plasmodium falciparum infection was associated with fever (p = 0.013), being a member of a control household (p ≤ 0.001), having a history of malaria infection (p = 0.041), and sleeping without a mosquito net (p = 0.011). Significant predictors of P. vivax infection, as diagnosed by PCR, were fever (p = 0.058, borderline significant) and history of malaria infection (p ≤ 0.001). CONCLUSION: This study found that RACD identified very few secondary infections when targeting index and neighbouring households for screening. The results suggest RACD is not appropriate, where exposure to malaria occurs away from the community, and there is a high level of treatment-seeking from the private sector. Piloting RACD in a range of transmission settings would help to identify the ideal environment for feasible and effective reactive screening methods.