Complementary Analysis and Implementation Plan for Conservation of Crop Wild Relatives in Finland.

Crop wild relatives (CWR) are valuable wild plant species that can be used as genetic resources providing adaptive traits to crop plants and therefore they play an important role in future food security. This paper describes in situ and ex situ conservation planning of CWR species in Finland and includes the following parts: (a) drafting of the national CWR priority list, (b) undertaking the in situ conservation gap analysis and (c) identifying ex situ conservation gaps and multi-species collecting sites for the CWR in Finland. As a result of the study, essential information was acquired, which will enhance future planning of active science-based practical conservation of CWR in Finland. Based on the new data and earlier work, a number of conservation recommendations are presented. This national work has been carried out in connection with the larger Nordic regional CWR co-operation.

The colonial legacy of herbaria.

Herbarium collections shape our understanding of Earth's flora and are crucial for addressing global change issues. Their formation, however, is not free from sociopolitical issues of immediate relevance. Despite increasing efforts addressing issues of representation and colonialism in natural history collections, herbaria have received comparatively less attention. While it has been noted that the majority of plant specimens are housed in the Global North, the extent and magnitude of this disparity have not been quantified. Here we examine the colonial legacy of botanical collections, analysing 85,621,930 specimen records and assessing survey responses from 92 herbarium collections across 39 countries. We find an inverse relationship between where plant diversity exists in nature and where it is housed in herbaria. Such disparities persist across physical and digital realms despite overt colonialism ending over half a century ago. We emphasize the need for acknowledging the colonial history of herbarium collections and implementing a more equitable global paradigm for their collection, curation and use.

Translocation of an arctic seashore plant reveals signs of maladaptation to altered climatic conditions.

Ongoing anthropogenic climate change alters the local climatic conditions to which species may be adapted. Information on species' climatic requirements and their intraspecific variation is necessary for predicting the effects of climate change on biodiversity. We used a climatic gradient to test whether populations of two allopatric varieties of an arctic seashore herb (Primula nutans ssp. finmarchica) show adaptation to their local climates and how a future warmer climate may affect them. Our experimental set-up combined a reciprocal translocation within the distribution range of the species with an experiment testing the performance of the sampled populations in warmer climatic conditions south of their range. We monitored survival, size, and flowering over four growing seasons as measures of performance and, thus, proxies of fitness. We found that both varieties performed better in experimental gardens towards the north. Interestingly, highest up in the north, the southern variety outperformed the northern one. Supported by weather data, this suggests that the climatic optima of both varieties have moved at least partly outside their current range. Further warming would make the current environments of both varieties even less suitable. We conclude that Primula nutans ssp. finmarchica is already suffering from adaptational lag due to climate change, and that further warming may increase this maladaptation, especially for the northern variety. The study also highlights that it is not sufficient to run only reciprocal translocation experiments. Climate change is already shifting the optimum conditions for many species and adaptation needs also to be tested outside the current range of the focal taxon in order to include both historic conditions and future conditions.

The Effect of Construction and Demolition Waste Plastic Fractions on Wood-Polymer Composite Properties.

Construction and demolition waste (CDW), including valuable materials such as plastics, have a remarkable influence on the waste sector. In order for plastic materials to be re-utilized, they must be identified and separated according to their polymer composition. In this study, the identification of these materials was performed using near-infrared spectroscopy (NIR), which identified material based on their physical-chemical properties. Advantages of the NIR method are a low environmental impact and rapid measurement (within a few seconds) in the spectral range of 1600-2400 nm without special sample preparation. Limitations include its inability to analyze dark materials. The identified polymers were utilized as a component for wood-polymer composite (WPC) that consists of a polymer matrix, low cost fillers, and additives. The components were first compounded with an agglomeration apparatus, followed by production by extrusion. In the agglomeration process, the aim was to compound all materials to produce uniformly distributed and granulated materials as pellets. During the agglomeration process, the polymer (matrix) was melted and fillers and other additives were then mixed into the melted polymer, being ready for the extrusion process. In the extrusion method, heat and shear forces were applied to a material within the barrel of a conical counter-rotating twin-screw type extruder, which reduces the risk of burning the materials and lower shear mixing. The heated and sheared mixture was then conveyed through a die to give the product the desired shape. The above-described protocol proved the potential for re-utilization of CDW materials. Functional properties must be verified according to the standardized tests, such as flexural, tensile, and impact strength tests for the material.

The Modelling of Extrusion Processes for Polymers-A Review.

Extrusion processes are widely used in industries that aim to produce advanced solutions for increasingly sophisticated demands in the plastic, food, and pharmaceutical sectors. Though the process has been in use since the 1930s, limited information is available on the analytical computation of extrusion. Generally, production has been carried out based on empirical experience and trial-and-error approaches. The development of industrial operations is, however, best addressed by modelling the processes involved, and the flow of polymer melts and fibers in extruders has been subjected to some previous studies. Also included an overview of design of a die as well as challenges in sheet/film production. This article systematically and critically reviews the literature related to the process design, machine design, process parameters, flow models, and flow analysis of extrusion with a focus on modelling the extrusion of composite materials.

Sorting efficiency in mechanical sorting of construction and demolition waste.

The requirements for the recycling of construction and demolition waste are tightening, and companies in the waste business have improved their performance to comply with new legislation. Construction and demolition waste includes various recyclable materials, such as metals, plastics and wood. However, effective material recovery requires functional and reliable technology for sorting in order to separate waste fractions into useful secondary materials or applications. This paper concerns the mechanical sorting efficiency of construction and demolition waste with a commercial mechanical sorting equipment consisting of a roller screening and an air separation unit. Sorting ability is studied with pre-sorted and crushed test material. Sieve analysis of pre-sorted test material is used to define particle size distribution before sorting. The quality criteria of construction and demolition waste vary greatly, depending on a number of factors which pose a challenge to the operation of the sorting system. The studied sorting equipment was found to be reliable for producing nine different fractions from pre-sorted and crushed material mixtures. The requirements for the purity level of the fractions and the profitability of utilization define the number of fractions to be sorted cost-efficiently. Typically, a compromise between cost and purity level has to be found.

Composition of Plastic Fractions in Waste Streams: Toward More Efficient Recycling and Utilization.

Reuse of materials is a significant global goal that contributes to sustainable development. Polymer-specific plastic identification from the waste stream is examined in this study to achieve environmentally optimistic reuse of plastic material in secondary applications. Two diverse waste streams, 86.11 kg of construction and demolition waste (CDW) plastic and 57.74 kg of mechanically sorted plastic, were analyzed by using a handheld tool whose identification technology was based on the near-infrared spectrum. The study indicates a significant effect of human and single fraction on manual separation. The polymer composition in the plastic waste stream varied depending on the source, but the most common plastic grades, polypropylene (PP) and polyethylene (PE), were represented in every waste stream. The waste stream also included unidentified and unfavorable wastes, which indicates that identification of the plastic fractions is needed and more studies should be done in this field in the future.

Addressing potential local adaptation in species distribution models: implications for conservation under climate change.

Species distribution models (SDMs) have been criticized for involving assumptions that ignore or categorize many ecologically relevant factors such as dispersal ability and biotic interactions. Another potential source of model error is the assumption that species are ecologically uniform in their climatic tolerances across their range. Typically, SDMs treat a species as a single entity, although populations of many species differ due to local adaptation or other genetic differentiation. Not taking local adaptation into account may lead to incorrect range prediction and therefore misplaced conservation efforts. A constraint is that we often do not know the degree to which populations are locally adapted. Lacking experimental evidence, we still can evaluate niche differentiation within a species' range to promote better conservation decisions. We explore possible conservation implications of making type I or type II errors in this context. For each of two species, we construct three separate Max-Ent models, one considering the species as a single population and two of disjunct populations. Principal component analyses and response curves indicate different climate characteristics in the current environments of the populations. Model projections into future climates indicate minimal overlap between areas predicted to be climatically suitable by the whole species vs. population-based models. We present a workflow for addressing uncertainty surrounding local adaptation in SDM application and illustrate the value of conducting population-based models to compare with whole-species models. These comparisons might result in more cautious management actions when alternative range outcomes are considered.

Divergent Impacts of Two Cattle Types on Vegetation in Coastal Meadows: Implications for Management.

The proportion of beef cattle in relation to the total number of cattle has increased in Europe, which has led to a higher contribution of beef cattle in the management of semi-natural grasslands. Changes in vegetation caused by this change in grazers are virtually unexplored so far. In the present study, the impacts of beef and dairy cattle on vegetation structure and composition were compared on Bothnian Bay coastal meadows. Vegetation parameters were measured in seven beef cattle, six dairy heifer pastures, and in six unmanaged meadows. Compared to unmanaged meadows, vegetation in grazed meadows was significantly lower in height and more frequently colonized by low-growth species. As expected, vegetation grazed by beef cattle was more open than that on dairy heifer pastures where litter cover and proportion of bare ground were in the same level as in the unmanaged meadows. However, the observed differences may have in part arisen from the higher cattle densities in coastal meadows grazed by beef cattle than by dairy heifers. The frequencies of different species groups and the species richness values of vegetation did not differ between the coastal meadows grazed by the two cattle types. One reason for this may be the relatively short management history of the studied pastures. The potential differences in grazing impacts of the two cattle types on vegetation structure can be utilized in the management of coastal meadows for species with divergent habitat requirements.

Coming to terms with the concept of moving species threatened by climate change - a systematic review of the terminology and definitions.

Intentional moving of species threatened by climate change is actively being discussed as a conservation approach. The debate, empirical studies, and policy development, however, are impeded by an inconsistent articulation of the idea. The discrepancy is demonstrated by the varying use of terms, such as assisted migration, assisted colonisation, or managed relocation, and their multiple definitions. Since this conservation approach is novel, and may for instance lead to legislative changes, it is important to aim for terminological consistency. The objective of this study is to analyse the suitability of terms and definitions used when discussing the moving of organisms as a response to climate change. An extensive literature search and review of the material (868 scientific publications) was conducted for finding hitherto used terms (N = 40) and definitions (N = 75), and these were analysed for their suitability. Based on the findings, it is argued that an appropriate term for a conservation approach relating to aiding the movement of organisms harmed by climate change is assisted migration defined as follows: Assisted migration means safeguarding biological diversity through the translocation of representatives of a species or population harmed by climate change to an area outside the indigenous range of that unit where it would be predicted to move as climate changes, were it not for anthropogenic dispersal barriers or lack of time. The differences between assisted migration and other conservation translocations are also discussed. A wide adoption of the clear and distinctive term and definition provided would allow more focused research on the topic and enable consistent implementation as practitioners could have the same understanding of the concept.

Host use of a specialist lichen-feeder: dealing with lichen secondary metabolites.

Host use by herbivores is largely determined by host properties such as nutrient content and chemical defence against foragers. The impacts of these attributes on a herbivore may largely depend on its life cycle stage. Lichen species are known to differ in nutritional quality and level of chemical defence and, consequently, vary as fodder for herbivores. The aim of this study was to explore the impact of several lichen species and the presence of their secondary metabolites on their use as hosts by a specialist lichen-feeder, Cleorodes lichenaria. This study also addressed, for the first time, how a specialist lichen-feeder deals with different lichen secondary metabolites. In the beginning of their development, larvae grew better on Xanthoria parietina than on the other host lichens, whereas older larvae grew best on Ramalina fraxinea. Lichen secondary chemicals in R. fraxinea and Parmelia sulcata hindered larval growth in the beginning but after 75 days lichen secondary chemicals had no impact on the mass of larvae. Physodic acids in Hypogymnia physodes were lethal to larvae. In general, larvae metabolized 70-95% of ingested lichen secondary chemicals and the rest of these were excreted in frass. Lichen secondary metabolites in P. sulcata restrict and in H. physodes prevent their use as a host for C. lichenaria larvae. Our main finding, the ability of larvae to metabolize several lichen secondary metabolites, indicates digestive adaptation to these chemicals. No signs of sequestration of these chemicals were found.

Differential responses of lichen symbionts to enhanced nitrogen and phosphorus availability: an experiment with Cladina stellaris.

BACKGROUND AND AIMS: Lichens can be both nitrogen- (N) and phosphorous- (P) limited and thus may be susceptible to nutrient enrichment. Nutrient enrichment with N and P may have differing impacts on the lichen structure because of different physiological responses of fungal and algal partners to these nutrients. The hypothesis was tested that the differential responses of lichen symbionts to enhanced availability of N and P is reflected in the lichen thallus structure and the wall-to-wall interface between the algal and fungal cells. METHODS: Lichen cushions of Cladonia stellaris were treated with one P and two N concentrations alone and in combination that yielded total depositions of approx. 300 (moderate) and 1000 (high) mg N m(-2) and 100 (high) mg P m(-2) over an experiment lasting 14 weeks. The effects of N and P inputs on the relative volumes of fungal and algal cell in the medullary tissue and on the thallus structure were studied using light microscopy. The interface between algal and fungal cell walls was examined using transmission electron microscopy. KEY RESULTS: The influence of excess P on the lichen thallus structure was stronger than that of additional N. Addition of P reduced the N : P ratio in podetia, the proportion of the medullary layer volume occupied by the algal cells, the thallus volume occupied by the internal lumen, and the algal cell-wall area covered by fungal hyphae. CONCLUSIONS: Ecologically realistic changes in the availability of key macronutrients can alter the growth of symbionts. Reduction in the proportion of photobiont cells indicates that the application of P either stimulates fungal hyphal growth in the medullary tissue or impairs the cell division of the algal cells. The results suggest that both the N and P availability and thallus N : P ratio affect the growth rates of lichen symbionts.

Impact of fertilisation on phenol content and growth rate of Cladina stellaris: a test of the carbon-nutrient balance hypothesis.

Responses of concentrations of usnic (UA) and perlatolic (PA) acids and the relative growth rate (RGR) of a mat-forming lichen, Cladina stellaris, to enhanced N and P input were studied in a fertilisation experiment. It was predicted on the basis of carbon-nutrient balance (CNB) hypothesis that the concentrations of these phenolics would decline and the growth rate increase in response to increased nutrient uptake. The concentration of UA showed a convex response pattern to increased N input whereas the concentration of PA was non-responsive. An ecologically realistic, "moderate", N treatment clearly lowered the level of UA both with and without the P application. Applying P alone caused a significant increase in the level of UA. The RGR of C. stellaris did not respond to nutrient addition. The results indicate that even though the CNB hypothesis may be applicable in explaining concentrations of lichen secondary metabolites, it may be applied under a relatively narrow set of conditions. Especially inherited constraints in the growth of lichen fungi may seriously limit the responsiveness of lichens to short-time changes in the availability of resources. These limitations may also apply to other perennials adapted to nutrient-poor conditions.