Malaria Parasites Hijack Host Receptors From Exosomes to Capture Lipoproteins.

Malaria parasites cannot multiply in host erythrocytes without cholesterol because they lack complete sterol biosynthesis systems. This suggests parasitized red blood cells (pRBCs) need to capture host sterols, but its mechanism remains unknown. Here we identified a novel high-density lipoprotein (HDL)-delivery pathway operating in blood-stage Plasmodium. In parasitized mouse plasma, exosomes positive for scavenger receptor CD36 and platelet-specific CD41 increased. These CDs were detected in pRBCs and internal parasites. A low molecular antagonist for scavenger receptors, BLT-1, blocked HDL uptake to pRBCs and suppressed Plasmodium growth in vitro. Furthermore, platelet-derived exosomes were internalized in pRBCs. Thus, we presume CD36 is delivered to malaria parasites from platelets by exosomes, which enables parasites to steal HDL for cholesterol supply. Cholesterol needs to cross three membranes (RBC, parasitophorous vacuole and parasite's plasma membranes) to reach parasite, but our findings can explain the first step of sterol uptake by intracellular parasites.

Regulation of the metabolism of apolipoprotein M and sphingosine 1-phosphate by hepatic PPARγ activity.

Apolipoprotein M (apoM) is a carrier and a modulator of sphingosine 1-phosphate (S1P), an important multifunctional bioactive lipid. Since peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor γ (PPARγ) is reportedly associated with the function and metabolism of S1P, we investigated the modulation of apoM/S1P homeostasis by PPARγ. First, we investigated the modulation of apoM and S1P homeostasis by the overexpression or knockdown of PPARγ in HepG2 cells and found that both the overexpression and the knockdown of PPARγ decreased apoM expression and S1P synthesis. When we activated or suppressed the PPARγ more mildly with pioglitazone or GW9662, we found that pioglitazone suppressed apoM expression and S1P synthesis, while GW9662 increased them. Next, we overexpressed PPARγ in mouse liver through adenoviral gene transfer and observed that both the plasma and hepatic apoM levels and the plasma S1P levels decreased, while the hepatic S1P levels increased, in the presence of enhanced sphingosine kinase activity. Treatment with pioglitazone decreased both the plasma and hepatic apoM and S1P levels only in diet-induced obese mice. Moreover, the overexpression of apoM increased, while the knockdown of apoM suppressed PPARγ activities in HepG2 cells. These results suggested that PPARγ regulates the S1P levels by modulating apoM in a bell-shaped manner, with the greatest levels of apoM/S1P observed when PPARγ was mildly expressed and that hepatic apoM/PPARγ axis might maintain the homeostasis of S1P metabolism.

Modulation of lipid metabolism with the overexpression of NPC1L1 in mouse liver.

Niemann-Pick C1-like 1 protein (NPC1L1), a transporter crucial in intestinal cholesterol absorption, is expressed in human liver but not in murine liver. To elucidate the role of hepatic NPC1L1 on lipid metabolism, we overexpressed NPC1L1 in murine liver utilizing adenovirus-mediated gene transfer. C57BL/6 mice, fed on normal chow with or without ezetimibe, were injected with NPC1L1 adenovirus (L1-mice) or control virus (Null-mice), and lipid analyses were performed five days after the injection. The plasma cholesterol levels increased in L1-mice, and FPLC analyses revealed increased cholesterol contents in large HDL lipoprotein fractions. These fractions, which showed α-mobility on agarose electrophoresis, were rich in apoE and free cholesterol. These lipoprotein changes were partially inhibited by ezetimibe treatment and were not observed in apoE-deficient mice. In addition, plasma and VLDL triglyceride (TG) levels decreased in L1-mice. The expression of microsomal triglyceride transfer protein (MTP) was markedly decreased in L1-mice, accompanied by the reduced protein levels of forkhead box protein O1 (FoxO1). These changes were not observed in mice with increased hepatic de novo cholesterol synthesis. These data demonstrate that cholesterol absorbed through NPC1L1 plays a distinct role in cellular and plasma lipid metabolism, such as the appearance of apoE-rich lipoproteins and the diminished VLDL-TG secretion.

A case of a giant glucagonoma with parathyroid hormone-related peptide secretion showing an inconsistent postsurgical endocrine status.

A 53-year-old woman was admitted because of a giant pancreatic tumor. Hypercalcemia and a high serum parathyroid hormone-related peptide (PTHrP) level were observed. A hypoglycemic attack occurred during pancreatectomy, and the surgical specimen revealed a PTHrP-secreting glucagonoma. Liver metastases developed 1 and 5.5 years later, and bone metastases appeared 6 years after surgery. Her serum PTHrP concentrations remained normal after surgery, despite re-elevation of the serum glucagon concentration after recurrence. The clinical course of this case illustrates the process of development of neuroendocrine tumors secreting two or more hormones.

LXR agonist increases apoE secretion from HepG2 spheroid, together with an increased production of VLDL and apoE-rich large HDL.

BACKGROUND: The physiological regulation of hepatic apoE gene has not been clarified, although the expression of apoE in adipocytes and macrophages has been known to be regulated by LXR. METHODS AND RESULTS: We investigated the effect of TO901317, a LXR agonist, on hepatic apoE production utilizing HepG2 cells cultured in spheroid form, known to be more differentiated than HepG2 cells in monolayer culture. Spheroid HepG2 cells were prepared in alginate-beads. The secretions of albumin, apoE and apoA-I from spheroid HepG2 cells were significantly increased compared to those from monolayer HepG2 cells, and these increases were accompanied by increased mRNA levels of apoE and apoA-I. Several nuclear receptors including LXRα also became abundant in nuclear fractions in spheroid HepG2 cells. Treatment with TO901317 significantly increased apoE protein secretion from spheroid HepG2 cells, which was also associated with the increased expression of apoE mRNA. Separation of the media with FPLC revealed that the production of apoE-rich large HDL particles were enhanced even at low concentration of TO901317, and at higher concentration of TO901317, production of VLDL particles increased as well. CONCLUSIONS: LXR activation enhanced the expression of hepatic apoE, together with the alteration of lipoprotein particles produced from the differentiated hepatocyte-derived cells. HepG2 spheroids might serve as a good model of well-differentiated human hepatocytes for future investigations of hepatic lipid metabolism.

Thiazolidinediones enhance sodium-coupled bicarbonate absorption from renal proximal tubules via PPARγ-dependent nongenomic signaling.

Thiazolidinediones (TZDs) improve insulin resistance by activating a nuclear hormone receptor, peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor γ (PPARγ). However, the use of TZDs is associated with plasma volume expansion through a mechanism that remains to be clarified. Here we showed that TZDs rapidly stimulate sodium-coupled bicarbonate absorption from the renal proximal tubule in vitro and in vivo. TZD-induced transport stimulation is dependent on PPARγ-Src-EGFR-ERK and observed in rat, rabbit and human, but not in mouse proximal tubules where Src-EGFR is constitutively activated. The existence of PPARγ-Src-dependent nongenomic signaling, which requires the ligand-binding ability, but not the transcriptional activity of PPARγ, is confirmed in mouse embryonic fibroblast cells. The enhancement of the association between PPARγ and Src by TZDs supports an indispensable role of Src in this signaling. These results suggest that the PPARγ-dependent nongenomic stimulation of renal proximal transport is also involved in TZD-induced volume expansion.

Plant sterols increased IL-6 and TNF-α secretion from macrophages, but to a lesser extent than cholesterol.

AIM: Phytosterolemia is an inherited disorder characterized by hypercholesterolemia and premature atherosclerosis, together with increased inflammatory states in some cases. The underlying mechanisms of atherogenesis in phytosterolemia, however, have not been completely elucidated. In this study, we investigated whether phytosterols would affect inflammatory reactions in macrophages and macrophage cell lines. METHODS: We incubated RAW264.7 cells (RAW) and mouse peritoneal macrophages (MPMs) with sitosterol (Sito), campesterol (Camp) or cholesterol (Chol) at low (8 µM, 16 µM) or high (160 µM) concentrations, and investigated their effects on LPS-induced secretion of IL-6 and TNF-α. We also analyzed their effects on endoplasmic reticulum (ER) stress in both cells, and on the cell proliferation of RAW. RESULTS: At low sterol concentrations, only Chol resulted in a tendency toward the increased secretion of TNF-α from MPMs. At high concentrations, Chol induced a significant increase in TNF-α secretions from both cells; however, Sito resulted in a non-significant increase in TNF-α secretion. The effects on IL-6 secretions of Sito were also significantly less than those of Chol. Camp increased the secretions of both cytokines from MPMs; however, the extent of these increases was less pronounced than that of Chol. Augmentation of ER stress was greatest with Chol among the sterols, and the proliferation of RAW cells was inhibited only with Chol. CONCLUSION: The lesser degree of inflammatory reactions and toxicity in macrophages with phytosterols than with cholesterol suggests that plant sterols themselves might not be primarily responsible for atherogenesis in phytosterolemia.

Identification of a novel mutation for phytosterolemia. Genetic analyses of 2 cases.

BACKGROUND: Phytosterolemia is one of the genetic disorders causing hypercholesterolemia and atherosclerosis together with the accumulation of plant sterol in plasma and tissues. The mutations in ABCG5 and ABCG8 genes, encoding sterolin-1 and -2, respectively, are responsible for phytosterolemia. METHODS: We performed genetic analyses on 2 Japanese phytosterolemia patients. RESULTS: We identified 2 mutations in the ABCG5 gene in these patients. The first patient was homozygous for a novel mutation, which was a 19-base pair tandem repeat insertion in exon 7, leading to a premature termination at codon 288. The second patient was a compound heterozygote; one of the mutations was the same as that found in the first patient, while the other mutation was a C to T substitution in exon 10, resulting in a premature termination at codon 446 (R446X). No other mutation was found in the ABCG5 and ABCG8 genes. CONCLUSIONS: This result was concordant with previous observations that found most Asian phytosterolemia patients possessed mutations in the ABCG5 gene, and the site of the novel mutation was completely different from these previous reports, necessitating the extensive analyses for phytosterolemia.

Differential effects of apolipoprotein E isoforms on lipolysis of very low-density lipoprotein triglycerides.

Apolipoprotein (apo) E plays a key role in lipoprotein metabolism and has been proposed to modulate triglyceride (TG) lipolysis. However, no systematic investigation on lipolysis using all 3 isoforms of apoE has been performed. To clarify the role of common human apoE isoforms in the lipolysis of very low-density lipoprotein (VLDL) TGs, we overexpressed human apoE isoforms in apoE and low-density lipoprotein receptor-deficient mice using adenoviral-mediated gene transfer and used VLDL particles obtained from these mice for in vitro lipolysis assay. Overexpression of apoE, regardless of its isoforms, increased the TG content of VLDL in mice in vivo. In vitro analysis of the effect of apoE on lipolysis revealed that irrespective of its isoforms, apoE did inhibit TG lipolysis at every concentration of apoE examined, and this inhibitory effect became more pronounced as the apoE content of VLDL increased. No difference was observed in TG lipolysis activity among isoforms at low apoE/TG ratio; however, intermediate ratios of apoE/TG, which reflect physiologic VLDL apoE/TG ratios, demonstrated a significantly greater level of lipolysis inhibition in apoE2, but less so in apoE4 compared with other isoforms. This differential effect by apoE isoforms on lipolysis was attenuated at higher apoE/TG ratios; nevertheless, apoE2 still inhibited lipolysis significantly more than did apoE4. Enrichment of VLDL with apoE decreased both the apoC contents and apoC-II/C-III ratios of VLDL, contributing, at least in part, to the inhibitory function of apoE on lipolysis. The present study clarifies the differential lipolysis-modulating effect of apoE isoforms, which would help explain the difference in pre- and postprandial TG levels among humans carrying different apoE isoforms.

Adenovirus-mediated gene transfer and lipoprotein-mediated protein delivery of plasma PAF-AH ameliorates proteinuria in rat model of glomerulosclerosis.

Oxidative stress has been proposed to play a crucial role in glomerulosclerosis, although its in vivo demonstration has proved taxing given the difficulty of inducing gene expression in specific renal cells. In this study, we examined whether the liver-directed expression of plasma platelet-activating factor acetylhydrolase (PAF-AH) would affect the glomerular pathophysiology in Imai rats, an animal model for glomerulosclerosis. Adenovirus-mediated liver-directed gene delivery of human PAF-AH resulted in a significant increase in plasma PAF-AH activity, which was detected almost exclusively on HDL. Histological examination of rats overexpressing PAF-AH showed not only the deposition of PAF-AH in mesangial cells, but also a reduction in hydroxynonenal and matrix protein content in the glomeruli. In situ hybridization analysis was negative for human PAF-AH mRNA in the kidney, while injection of HDL abundant in PAF-AH resulted in the deposition of PAF-AH in mesangial cells. Urine protein levels did not increase in rats overexpressing PAF-AH, while those of control rats increased significantly with age. This study provides direct evidence of the in vivo role of an enzyme that degrades lipid peroxides during the progression of glomerulosclerosis. Adenovirus-mediated extrarenal gene expression and lipoprotein-mediated glomeruli-targeted protein delivery promise to be a novel therapeutic approach to glomerulosclerosis.

Regulation of SR-BI protein levels by phosphorylation of its associated protein, PDZK1.

Scavenger receptor class B type I (SR-BI) is a high-density lipoprotein (HDL) receptor that mediates the selective uptake of HDL cholesterol and cholesterol secretion into bile in the liver. Previously, we identified an SR-BI-associated protein, termed PDZK1, from rat liver membrane extracts. PDZK1 contains four PSD-95/Dlg/ZO-1 (PDZ) domains, the first of which in the N-terminal region is responsible for the association with SR-BI. PDZK1 controls hepatic SR-BI expression in a posttranscriptional fashion both in cell culture and in vivo. In this study, we demonstrated that the C-terminal region of PDZK1 is crucial for up-regulating SR-BI protein expression. Metabolic labeling experiments and phosphoamino acid analysis revealed that PDZK1 is phosphorylated at Ser residues within this region. Point-mutation analysis demonstrated that PDZK1 is phosphorylated at Ser-509. Interestingly, a mutant PDZK1, in which Ser-509 was replaced with Ala, lost the ability to up-regulate SR-BI protein. We identified Ser-509 of PDZK1 as the residue that is phosphorylated by the cAMP-dependent PKA in vitro as well as in cell culture. Ser-509 of PDZK1 in rat liver was also phosphorylated, as shown by an Ab that specifically detects phosphorylated Ser-509. Administration of glucagon to Wistar rats increased PDZK1 phosphorylation as well as hepatic SR-BI and PDZK1 expression while it decreased plasma HDL levels, indicating that PDZK1 phosphorylation is hormonally regulated. These findings suggest that phosphorylation of PDZK1 has an important role in the regulation of hepatic SR-BI expression and, thus, influences plasma HDL levels.

Iron chelation and a free radical scavenger suppress angiotensin II-induced upregulation of TGF-beta1 in the heart.

Long-term administration of angiotensin II causes myocardial loss and cardiac fibrosis. We previously found iron deposition in the heart of the angiotensin II-infused rat, which may promote angiotensin II-induced cardiac damage. In the present study, we have investigated whether an iron chelator (deferoxamine) and a free radical scavenger (T-0970) affect the angiotensin II-induced upregulation of transforming growth factor-beta1 (TGF-beta1). Angiotensin II infusion for 7 days caused a robust increase in TGF-beta1 mRNA expression in vascular smooth muscle cells, myofibroblast-like cells, and migrated monocytes/macrophages. T-0970 and deferoxamine suppressed the upregulation of TGF-beta1 mRNA and reduced the extent of cardiac fibrosis in the heart of rats treated with angiotensin II. These agents blocked the angiotensin II-induced upregulation of heme oxygenase-1, a potent oxidative and cellular stress-responsive gene, but they did not significantly affect systolic blood pressure or plasma levels of aldosterone. In addition, T-0970 and deferoxamine suppressed the angiotensin II-induced upregulation of monocyte chemoattractant protein-1 in the heart. These results collectively suggest that iron and the iron-mediated generation of reactive oxygen species may contribute to angiotensin II-induced upregulation of profibrotic and proinflammatory genes, such as TGF-beta1 and monocyte chemoattractant protein-1.

Role of aberrant iron homeostasis in the upregulation of transforming growth factor-beta1 in the kidney of angiotensin II-induced hypertensive rats.

We have previously shown that abnormal iron metabolism might be one underlying mechanism of the renal damage observed in the angiotensin II-infused rat. Transforming growth factor-beta1 (TGF-beta1) is known to play a crucial role in the development of renal damage induced by activation of the renin-angiotensin-aldosterone system. The purpose of the present study was to examine the effects of an iron chelator and a free radical scavenger on the angiotensin II-induced upregulation of TGF-beta1 in the kidney. Rats were given angiotensin II (0.7 mg/kg/day) via osmotic minipumps for 7 days. The expressions of the mRNAs of TGF-beta1 and collagen types I and IV were significantly increased in response to angiotensin II treatment. Histologic analysis showed that TGF-beta1 expression was upregulated mainly in tubular epithelial cells, and occasionally in glomerular and perivascular cells, some of which were identified as monocytes and/or macrophages. Although tubular cells that overexpressed TGF-beta1 did not contain iron particles, angiotensin II-induced TGF-beta1 upregulation was suppressed by the iron chelator and the free radical scavenger. The free radical scavenger also suppressed angiotensin II-induced upregulation of heme oxygenase-1, an oxidative-stress sensitive gene. By contrast, administration of iron dextran to rats induced upregulation of TGF-beta1 mRNA. Collectively, these data suggest that the renal iron overload and presumed subsequent increase in oxidative stress play a role in angiotensin II-induced upregulation of the mRNAs of TGF-beta1 and collagen types I and IV in the kidney.

Modulation of HDL metabolism by probucol in complete cholesteryl ester transfer protein deficiency.

Probucol, an antioxidative and hypolipidemic agent, has been postulated to increase reverse cholesterol transport by enhancing cholesteryl ester transfer protein (CETP) activity. However, its clinical implication in CETP deficient patients has not been fully defined. To characterize the effects of probucol in the absence of CETP, we evaluated the changes in lipid profile, lipid peroxidation, and paraoxonase 1 (PON1) activity in two complete CETP deficient patients, caused by treatment with probucol. When the patients were not receiving probucol, low-density lipoprotein (LDL) particles were smaller and high-density lipoprotein (HDL) particles were larger in these patients than in controls. Treatment with probucol (500 mg/day) resulted in the decrease in the levels of HDL-C and apolipoprotein (apo) A-I up to 22%. The size of HDL particles became smaller. LDL cholesterol concentration did not change in one patient, while it decreased by 47% in the other. PON1 activity/HDL-C, which was about 40% lower in the patients before treatment than in controls with the matching PON1 genotype, increased by 30% during the treatment. Lag time for LDL and HDL in both cases became prolonged more than 1.8 times after administration of probucol. This study demonstrated for the first time that probucol reduces HDL-C even in humans with complete CETP deficiency. Probucol treatment in these patients was also associated with protection of lipoproteins against oxidative stress, suggesting a clinical benefit of this drug even in such a state.

Human plasma platelet-activating factor acetylhydrolase binds to all the murine lipoproteins, conferring protection against oxidative stress.

OBJECTIVE: Plasma platelet-activating factor (PAF) acetylhydrolase (AH) is an enzyme bound with lipoproteins that degrades not only PAF but also PAF-like oxidized phospholipids that are proposed to promote atherosclerosis. In this study, we investigated the distribution of PAF-AH protein among lipoprotein classes by using adenovirus-mediated gene transfer in mice, and we examined its effects on lipoprotein oxidation and foam cell formation of macrophages. METHODS AND RESULTS: Adenovirus-mediated overexpression of PAF-AH in mice resulted in a 76- to 140-fold increase in plasma PAF-AH activity. Contrary to the previous report, overexpressed human PAF-AH protein was bound to very low density lipoprotein, intermediate density lipoprotein, low density lipoprotein, and high density lipoprotein (HDL). All the lipoproteins with overexpressed human PAF-AH revealed more resistance against oxidative stress, which was associated with lower levels in autoantibody against oxidized low density lipoprotein in the plasma. In addition, HDL with human PAF-AH inhibited foam cell formation and facilitated cholesterol efflux in macrophages. CONCLUSIONS: These results suggest that human plasma PAF-AH exerts an antiatherogenic effect by binding to all the lipoproteins and thereby protecting them from oxidation, producing less proatherogenic lipoproteins and preserving HDL functions.

Isoform-dependent cholesterol efflux from macrophages by apolipoprotein E is modulated by cell surface proteoglycans.

OBJECTIVE: Apolipoprotein E (apoE) mediates cellular cholesterol efflux and plays a crucial role in the inhibition of atherogenesis. We investigated whether there is an isoform-specific difference in its function for cholesterol efflux from cholesterol-loaded RAW264.7 cells, a murine macrophage cell line that lacks endogenous apoE expression. METHODS AND RESULTS: When human apoE was expressed in RAW264.7 cells, apoE2 reduced cellular total cholesterol (TC) and esterified cholesterol (EC) levels significantly, whereas apoE3 and apoE4 had no effect. However, treatment of cells with 4-methylumbelliferyl-7-beta-D-xyloside (beta-DX) resulted in all 3 isoforms' reducing cellular TC and EC contents significantly. We also investigated the effect of exogenously derived apoE on cholesterol efflux by utilizing the medium harvested from HeLa cells expressing apoE. ApoE2 and E3 reduced both cellular TC and EC contents significantly, whereas apoE4 did not. However, treatment of the cells with beta-DX resulted in all 3 exogenously derived apoE isoforms' reducing TC and EC contents significantly. The binding ability of apoE to heparan sulfate proteoglycans examined by heparinase I treatment revealed less binding ability of apoE2 compared with that of apoE3 or apoE4. CONCLUSIONS: The present study clarified the differential cellular cholesterol-modulating effect of apoE isoforms in macrophages, which would be due to the difference in their binding to proteoglycans.

Facilitated angiogenesis induced by heme oxygenase-1 gene transfer in a rat model of hindlimb ischemia.

Heme oxygenase-1 (HO-1) is an inducible form of heme oxygenase that catabolizes heme to carbon monoxide, biliverdin, and ferrous iron. We have investigated whether HO-1 can induce angiogenic effects in vivo. Rats were subjected to a bolus injection of either wild type adenovirus (ad-wt) or adenovirus encoding HO-1 (ad-HO-1) through the right femoral artery, which was then removed immediately. HO-1 gene transfer resulted in about a sixfold increase in HO-1 protein levels as compared to the non-treated animals. The increase in both blood flow and capillary density was significantly greater in the ischemic hindlimbs that had been injected with ad-HO-1 than in those injected with ad-wt. These angiogenic effects of ad-HO-1 infection could be completely abolished by treating the animals with the HO inhibitor, zinc protoporphyrin, indicating that they were specifically due to the expression of HO-1. Thus, HO-1 gene transfer improves the blood flow in ischemic hindlimb, at least in part, via angiogenesis facilitated by the induction of this molecule.

Localization of Na+-HCO-3 cotransporter (NBC-1) variants in rat and human pancreas.

Mutations in Na(+)-HCO(3)(-) cotransporter (NBC-1) cause proximal renal tubular acidosis (pRTA) associated with ocular abnormalities. One pRTA patient had increased serum amylase, suggesting possible evidence of pancreatitis. To further delineate a link between NBC-1 inactivation and pancreatic dysfunction, immunohistochemical analysis was performed on rat and human pancreas using antibodies against kidney-type (kNBC-1) and pancreatic-type (pNBC-1) transporters. In rat pancreas, the anti-pNBC-1 antibody labeled acinar cells and both apical and basolateral membranes of medium and large duct cells. In human pancreas, on the other hand, the anti-pNBC-1 antibody did not label acinar cells, although it did label the basolateral membranes of the entire duct system. The labeling by anti-kNBC-1 antibody was detected in only a limited number of rat pancreatic duct cells. To examine the effects of pRTA-related mutations, R342S and R554H, on pNBC-1 function, we performed functional analysis and found that both mutants had reduced transport activities compared with the wild-type pNBC-1. These results indicate that pNBC-1 is the predominant variant that mediates basolateral HCO(3)(-) uptake into duct cells in both rat and human pancreas. The loss of pNBC-1 function is predicted to have significant impact on overall ductal HCO(3)(-) secretion, which could potentially lead to pancreatic dysfunction.