Effect of intraoperative intravenous lidocaine on pain and plasma interleukin-6 in patients undergoing hysterectomy / Efeito da lidocaína venosa intraoperatória sobre dor e interleucina-6 plasmática em pacientes submetidas a histerectomia / Efecto de la lidocaína venosa intraoperatoria sobre el dolor e interleucina-6 plasmática en pacientes sometidas a histerectomía

BACKGROUND AND OBJECTIVES: Interleukin-6 is a predictor of trauma severity. The purpose of this study was to evaluate the effect of intravenous lidocaine on pain severity and plasma interleukin-6 after hysterectomy. METHOD: A prospective, randomized, comparative, double-blind study with 40 patients, aged 18-60 years. G1 received lidocaine (2 mg kg-1 h-1) or G2 received 0.9% saline solution during the operation. Anesthesia was induced with O2/isoflurane. Pain severity (T0: awake and 6, 12, 18 and 24 h), first analgesic request, and dose of morphine in 24 h were evaluated. Interleukin-6 was measured before starting surgery (T0), 5 h after the start (T5), and 24 h after the end of surgery (T24). RESULTS: There was no difference in pain severity between groups. There was a decrease in pain severity between T0 and other measurement times in G1. Time to first supplementation was greater in G2 (76.0 ± 104.4 min) than in G1 (26.7 ± 23.3 min). There was no difference in supplemental dose of morphine between G1 (23.5 ± 12.6 mg) and G2 (18.7 ± 11.3 mg). There were increased concentrations of IL-6 in both groups from T0 to T5 and T24. There was no difference in IL-6 dosage between groups. Lidocaine concentration was 856.5 ± 364.1 ng mL-1 in T5 and 30.1 ± 14.2 ng mL-1 in T24. CONCLUSION: Intravenous lidocaine (2 mg kg-1 h-1) did not reduce pain severity and plasma levels of IL-6 in patients undergoing abdominal hysterectomy. .

JUSTIFICATIVA E OBJETIVOS: A interleucina-6 (IL-6) é preditora de intensidade no trauma. O objetivo deste estudo foi avaliar o efeito da lidocaína por via venosa sobre a intensidade da dor e IL-6 após histerectomia. MÉTODO: O estudo foi prospectivo, randomizado, comparativo e duplo-encoberto em 40 pacientes, entre 18 e 60 anos. Foi administrada lidocaína (2 mg.kg-1.h-1) no G1 ou solução salina a 0,9% no G2 durante a operação. A anestesia foi com O2/isoflurano. Foi avaliada a intensidade da dor (T0: despertar e seis, 12, 18 e 24 horas), a primeira solicitação de analgésico, a dose de morfina nas 24 horas. A IL-6 foi medida antes do início da operação (T0), após cinco horas do início (T5) e 24 horas após o término (T24). RESULTADOS: Não houve diferença na intensidade da dor entre os grupos. Ocorreu diminuição da intensidade da dor entre T0 e os outros momentos avaliados no G1. O tempo para primeira complementação foi maior no G2 (76,0 ± 104,4 min) do que no G1 (26,7 ± 23,3 min). Não houve diferença na dose de morfina complementar entre G1 (23,5 ± 12,6 mg) e G2 (18,7 ± 11,3 mg). Houve aumento das concentrações de IL-6 em ambos os grupos de T0 para T5 e T24. Não houve diferença na dosagem de IL-6 entre os grupos. A concentração de lidocaína foi 856,5 ± 364,1 ng.mL-1 em T5 e 30,1 ± 14,2 ng.mL-1 em T24. CONCLUSÃO: A lidocaína (2 mg.kg-1.h-1) por via venosa não promoveu redução da intensidade da dor e dos níveis plasmáticos de IL-6 em pacientes submetidas a histerectomia abdominal. .

JUSTIFICACIÓN Y OBJETIVOS: La interleucina-6 (IL-6) es predictora de intensidad en el trauma. El objetivo de este estudio fue evaluar el efecto de la lidocaína por vía venosa sobre la intensidad del dolor e IL-6 después de la histerectomía. MÉTODO: El estudio fue prospectivo, aleatorizado, comparativo y doble ciego en 40 pacientes, entre 18 y 60 años. Fue administrada lidocaína (2 mg/kg-1.h-1) en el G1 o solución salina al 0,9% en el G2 durante la operación. La anestesia fue con O2/isoflurano. Se calculó la intensidad del dolor (T0: despertar y 6, 12, 18 y 24 h), la primera solicitud de analgésico, y la dosis de morfina en las primeras 24 h. La IL-6 se midió antes del inicio de la operación (T0), después de 5 h del inicio (T5) y 24 h después de finalizada (T24). RESULTADOS: No hubo diferencia en la intensidad del dolor entre los grupos. Hubo disminución de la intensidad del dolor entre T0 y los otros momentos evaluados en el G1. El tiempo para la primera complementación fue mayor en el G2 (76 ± 104,4 min) que en el G1 (26,7 ± 23,3 min). No hubo diferencia en las dosis de morfina complementaria entre G1 (23,5 ± 12,6 mg) y G2 (18,7 ± 11,3 mg). Hubo aumento en las concentraciones de IL-6 en los 2 grupos de T0 para T5 y T24. No hubo diferencia en la dosificación de IL-6 entre los grupos. La concentración de lidocaína fue 856,5 ± 364,1 ng/ml-1 en T5 y 30,1 ± 14,2 ng/ml-1 en T24. CONCLUSIÓN: La lidocaína (2 mg/kg-1 /h-1) por vía venosa no generó reducción de la intensidad del dolor y de los niveles plasmáticos de IL-6 en pacientes sometidas a histerectomía abdominal. .

[Effect of intraoperative intravenous lidocaine on pain and plasma interleukin-6 in patients undergoing hysterectomy]. / Efeito da lidocaína venosa intraoperatória sobre dor e interleucina-6 plasmática em pacientes submetidas a histerectomia.

BACKGROUND AND OBJECTIVES: Interleukin-6 (IL-6) is a predictor of trauma severity. The purpose of this study was to evaluate the effect of intravenous lidocaine on pain severity and plasma IL-6 after hysterectomy. METHOD: A prospective, randomized, comparative, double-blind study with 40 patients, aged 18-60 years. G1 received lidocaine (2mg.kg(-1).h(-1)) or G2 received 0.9% saline solution during the operation. Anesthesia was induced with O2/isoflurane. Pain severity (T0: awake and 6, 12, 18 and 24hours), first analgesic request, and dose of morphine in 24hours were evaluated. IL-6 was measured before starting surgery (T0), five hours after the start (T5), and 24hours after the end of surgery (T24). RESULTS: There was no difference in pain severity between groups. There was a decrease in pain severity between T0 and other measurement times in G1. Time to first supplementation was greater in G2 (76.0±104.4min) than in G1 (26.7±23.3min). There was no difference in supplemental dose of morphine between G1 (23.5±12.6mg) and G2 (18.7±11.3mg). There were increased concentrations of IL-6 in both groups from T0 to T5 and T24. There was no difference in IL-6 dosage between groups. Lidocaine concentration was 856.5±364.1 ng.mL(-1) in T5 and 30.1±14.2 ng.mL(-1) in T24. CONCLUSION: Intravenous lidocaine (2mg.kg(-1).h(-1)) did not reduce pain severity and plasma levels of IL-6 in patients undergoing abdominal hysterectomy.

Effects of preoperative intravenous clonidine in patients undergoing cataract surgery: a double-blind, randomized trial.

Objectives. The aim of this study was to assess the effects of clonidine on intraoperative analgesia, sedation, intraocular and blood pressure, arrhythmia, and ischemia. Methods. Forty patients undergoing cataract surgery were allocated into two groups. They were monitored with Holter machine, the pupil was dilated, and 30 minutes later, 20 patients received clonidine (4 µg/kg), while the other 20 patients were given a 0.9% saline intravenously. Twenty minutes later, 2% lidocaine gel was applied. There were assessed intraoperative analgesia, intraocular pressure, blood pressure, heart rate, and the occurrence of arrhythmias and myocardial ischemia. Results. Pain intensity was lower in G1 during the phacoemulsification, irrigation, aspiration, and intraocular lens implantation. The HR and BP were lower with clonidine. The IOP was lower with clonidine after 15 minutes and at the end of the surgery. Sedation was higher with clonidine. The incidence of arrhythmia was lower at the end of surgery with clonidine. The incidence of myocardial ischemia did not differ between the groups. Conclusions. Clonidine (4 µg/kg) before a phacoemulsification reduced the intensity of pain during cataract surgery. It also induced sedation, reduction of BP, HR, and incidence of arrhythmia at the end of the surgery, and did not alter myocardial ischemia. This trial is registered with Clinicaltrials.gov NCT01677351.

Assessment of the effect of ketamine in combination with remifentanil on postoperative pain.

BACKGROUND AND OBJECTIVES: The combination of ketamine and remifentanil seems to be associated with better analgesia and duration. The aim of this study was to evaluate whether a ketamine-remifentanil combination promotes improved postoperative analgesia. METHODS: Prospective, randomized, double blind study of 40 patients undergoing video laparoscopic cholecystectomy. Anesthesia was performed with remifentanil, propofol, atracurium, and 50% oxygen. Group 1 (GI) patients received remifentanil (0.4 mcg.kg(-1).min(-1)) and ketamine (5 mcg.kg(-1).min(-1)) and Group 2 (G2) received remifentanil (0.4 mcg.kg(-1).min(-1)) and saline solution. Morphine 0.1mg.kg(-1) was administered at the end of the procedure, and postoperative pain was treated with morphine via PCA. We evaluated the severity of postoperative pain by a numerical scale from zero to 10 during 24 hours. We registered the time to the first analgesic supplementation, amount of morphine used in the first 24 hours, and adverse effects. RESULTS: There was a decrease in pain severity between extubation and other times evaluated in G1 and G2. There was no significant difference in pain intensity between the groups. There was no difference between G1 (22±24.9 min) and G2 (21.5±28.1min) regarding time to first dose of morphine and dose supplement of morphine consumed in G1 (29±18.4mg) and G2 (25.1±13.3mg). CONCLUSION: The combination of ketamine (5 mcg.kg(-1).min(-1)) and remifentanil (0.4mcg.kg(-1).min(-1)) for cholecystectomy did not alter the severity of postoperative pain, time to first analgesic supplementation or dose of morphine in 24hours.

Avaliação do efeito da cetamina associada à remifentanila na dor pós-operatória / Assessment of the effect of ketamine in combination with remifentanil on postoperative pain / Evaluación del Efecto de la Cetamina Asociada con el Remifentanilo en el Dolor Postoperatorio

JUSTIFICATIVA E OBJETIVOS: A associação de cetamina com remifentanila parece estar relacionada à analgesia de melhor qualidade e duração. O objetivo deste estudo foi avaliar se a cetamina associada à remifentanila promove melhora da analgesia pós-operatória. MÉTODO: Estudo prospectivo, aleatório, duplo encoberto em 40 pacientes submetidos à colecistectomia videolaparoscópica. A anestesia foi feita com remifentanila, propofol, atracúrio, 50% de oxigênio. Os pacientes do G1 receberam remifentanila (0,4 mcg.kg-1.min-1) e cetamina (5 mcg.kg-1.min-1); os do G2, remifentanila (0,4 mcg.kg-1.min-1) e solução salina. Foi administrado 0,1 mg.kg-1 de morfina no final da operação e a dor pós-operatória foi tratada com morfina, através de analgesia controlada pelo paciente (PCA). A intensidade da dor pós-operatória foi avaliada pela escala numérica de 0 a 10, durante 24 horas. Foram anotados o tempo para primeira complementação analgésica, a quantidade de morfina usada durante 24 horas e os efeitos adversos. RESULTADOS: Ocorreu diminuição da intensidade da dor entre a desintubação e os outros momentos avaliados no G1 e no G2. Não foi observada diferença significante na intensidade da dor entre os grupos. Não houve diferença entre G1 (22 ± 24,9 min) e G2 (21,5 ± 28,1 min) no tempo para a primeira dose de morfina e dose complementar de morfina consumida no G1 (29 ± 18,4 mg) e no G2 (25,1 ± 13,3 mg). CONCLUSÕES: A associação de cetamina (5 mcg.kg-1.min-1) a remifentanila (0,4 mcg.kg-1.min-1) para colecistectomia não alterou a intensidade da dor pós-operatória, o tempo para primeira complementação ou a dose de morfina em 24 horas.

BACKGROUND AND OBJECTIVES: The combination of ketamine and remifentanil seems to be associated with better analgesia and duration. The aim of this study was to evaluate whether a ketamineremifentanil combination promotes improved postoperative analgesia. METHODS: Prospective, randomized, double blind study of 40 patients undergoing video laparoscopic cholecystectomy. Anesthesia was performed with remifentanil, propofol, atracurium, and 50% oxygen. Group 1 (GI) patients received remifentanil (0.4 mcg.kg-1.min-1) and ketamine (5 mcg.kg-1.min-1) and Group 2 (G2) received remifentanil (0.4 mcg.kg-1.min-1) and saline solution. Morphine 0.1 mg.kg-1 was administered at the end of the procedure, and postoperative pain was treated with morphine via PCA. We evaluated the severity of postoperative pain by a numerical scale from zero to 10 during 24 hours. We registered the time to the first analgesic supplementation, amount of morphine used in the first 24 hours, and adverse effects. RESULTS: There was a decrease in pain severity between extubation and other times evaluated in G1 and G2. There was no significant difference in pain intensity between the groups. There was no difference between G1 (22 ± 24.9 min) and G2 (21.5 ± 28.1 min) regarding time to first dose of morphine and dose supplement of morphine consumed in G1 (29 ± 18.4 mg) and G2 (25.1 ± 13.3 mg). CONCLUSION: The combination of ketamine (5 mcg.kg-1.min-1) and remifentanil (0.4 mcg.kg-1.min-1) for cholecystectomy did not alter the severity of postoperative pain, time to first analgesic supplementation or dose of morphine in 24 hours.

JUSTIFICATIVA Y OBJETIVOS: La asociación de la cetamina con el Remifentanilo parece estar asociada con una analgesia de mejor calidad y duración. El objetivo de este estudio fue evaluar si la cetamina asociada al Remifentanilo genera una mejoría de la analgesia postoperatoria. MÉTODO: Se hizo un estudio prospectivo, aleatorio y doble ciego en 40 pacientes sometidos a la colecistectomía videolaparoscópica. La anestesia se realizó con de Remifentanilo, propofol, atracurio y 50% de oxígeno. Los pacientes del G1 recibieron Remifentanilo (0,4 mcg.kg-1.min-1) y cetamina (5 mcg.kg-1.min-1); los del G2, Remifentanilo (0,4 mcg.kg-1.min-1) y solución salina. Fue administrado 0,1 mg.kg-1 de morfina al final de la operación y el dolor postoperatorio se trató con morfina por medio de analgesia controlada por el paciente (PCA). La intensidad del dolor postoperatorio fue mensurada por la escala numérica de 0 a 10, durante 24h. Se anotó el tiempo para la primera complementación analgésica, la cantidad de morfina utilizada durante 24 h y los efectos adversos. RESULTADOS: Ocurrió una reducción de la intensidad del dolor entre el momento de la desentubación y los otros momentos calculados en el G1 y en el G2. No fue observada ninguna diferencia significativa en la intensidad del dolor entre los grupos. No hubo diferencia entre G1 (22 ± 24,9 min.) y G2 (21,5 ± 28,1 min.) en el tiempo para la primera dosis de morfina y dosis complementaria de morfina consumida en el G1 (29 ± 18,4 mg) y en el G2 (25,1 ± 13,3 mg). CONCLUSIONES: La asociación de la cetamina (5 mcg.kg-1.min-1) con el Remifentanilo (0,4 mcg.kg-1.min-1) para la colecistectomía no alteró la intensidad del dolor postoperatorio, el tiempo para la primera complementación o la dosis de morfina en 24h.

Assessment of the effect of ketamine in combination with remifentanil on postoperative pain.

BACKGROUND AND OBJECTIVES: The combination of ketamine and remifentanil seems to be associated with better analgesia and duration. The aim of this study was to evaluate whether a ketamine- remifentanil combination promotes improved postoperative analgesia. METHODS: Prospective, randomized, double blind study of 40 patients undergoing video laparoscopic cholecystectomy. Anesthesia was performed with remifentanil, propofol, atracurium, and 50% oxygen. Group 1 (GI) patients received remifentanil (0.4 mcg.kg(-1).min(-1)) and ketamine (5 mcg.kg(-1).min(-1)) and Group 2 (G2) received remifentanil (0.4 mcg.kg(-1).min(-1)) and saline solution. Morphine 0.1 mg.kg(-1) was administered at the end of the procedure, and postoperative pain was treated with morphine via PCA. We evaluated the severity of postoperative pain by a numerical scale from zero to 10 during 24 hours. We registered the time to the first analgesic supplementation, amount of morphine used in the first 24 hours, and adverse effects. RESULTS: There was a decrease in pain severity between extubation and other times evaluated in G1 and G2. There was no significant difference in pain intensity between the groups. There was no difference between G1 (22 ± 24.9 min) and G2 (21.5 ± 28.1 min) regarding time to first dose of morphine and dose supplement of morphine consumed in G1 (29 ± 18.4 mg) and G2 (25.1 ± 13.3 mg). CONCLUSION: The combination of ketamine (5 mcg.kg(-1).min(-1)) and remifentanil (0.4 mcg.kg(-1).min(-1)) for cholecystectomy did not alter the severity of postoperative pain, time to first analgesic supplementation or dose of morphine in 24 hours.

Avaliação do efeito preemptivo da s(+)-cetamina por via peridural para histerectomia: concentrações plasmáticas de interleucinas / Evaluation of preemptive effect of epidural s(+)-ketamine for hysterectomy: plasmatic concentrations of interleukins

JUSTIFICATIVA E OBJETIVOS: Alguns estudos demonstraram que a cetamina inibe a produção de citocinas. O objetivo deste estudo foi avaliar o efeito analgésico preemptivo e citocinas plasmáticas (IL-6, TNF-α e IL-10) de S(+)-cetamina por via peridural em histerectomia. MÉTODO: Foi realizado estudo duplo-encoberto em 29 pacientes. Pacientes do Grupo 1 receberam 13 mL de bupivacaína a 0,25 por cento com 25 mg de S(+)-cetamina 30 minutos antes da incisão cirúrgica, e 15 mL de solução salina fisiológica, 30 minutos após, por via peridural. Pacientes do Grupo 2 receberam 15 mL de salina 30 minutos antes da incisão cirúrgica, seguido por 13 mL de bupivacaína 0,25 por cento, mais 25 mg de S (+)-cetamina 30 minutos após. A analgesia pós-operatória foi feita com bupivacaína e fentanil por via peridural. Quando necessário, foi utilizado 1 g de dipirona. Foram avaliados: concentração de citocinas, intensidade da dor, o tempo da primeira solicitação de analgésico e a quantidade total de analgésico utilizado. RESULTADOS: O tempo para a primeira solicitação de analgésico foi de 61,5 minutos no Grupo 1 e 69,0 no Grupo 2, sem diferença entre os grupos. Não houve diferença entre os grupos para a dose total de fentanil usada no Grupo 1 (221,4 µg) e Grupo 2 (223,3 µg). Foi obtido efeito analgésico semelhante nos grupos, exceto em T12 (Grupo 1 = 2,4 ± 3,2; Grupo 2 = 5,5 ± 3,4). Não foi observada diferença entre os grupos na concentração de citocinas. CONCLUSÕES: A injeção de 25 mg de S(+)-cetamina por via peridural antes da incisão reduziu a intensidade da dor apenas 12 horas após a incisão cirúrgica e não alterou a concentração de citocinas.

BACKGROUND AND OBJECTIVES: Some studies showed that ketamine inhibits the production of cytokines. The objective of this study was to evaluate the preemptive analgesic effect of epidural S(+)-ketamine in hysterectomy and plasmatic cytokines (IL-6, TNF-α and IL-10). METHOD: A double-blinded study with 29 patients was conducted. Patients in Group 1 received 13 mL of 0.25 percent bupivacaine with 25 mg of S(+)ketamine 30 minutes before surgical incision and 15 mL of saline solution via the epidural route 30 minutes after. Patients in Group 2 received 15 mL of saline solution 30 minutes before the surgical incision, followed by 13 mL of 0.25 percent bupivacaine with 25 mg of S(+)-ketamine 30 minutes after. Postoperative analgesia was made with epidural bupivacaine and fentanyl. Dipyrone 1 g was used whenever required. The following paramenters were evaluated: concentration of cytokines, intensity of pain, time of first request of analgesic and total quantity of analgesic used. RESULTS: Time for the first request for analgesics was 61.5 minutes in Group 1 and 69.0 in Group 2, without difference between these groups. There was no difference for total dose of fentanyl used in Group 1 (221.4 µg) and Group 2 (223.3 µg). A similar analgesic effect was obtained in both groups, except in T12 (Group 1 = 2.4 ± 3.2; Group 2 = 5.5 ± 3.4). No differences in concentration of cytokines were observed. CONCLUSIONS: The epidural injection of 25 mg S(+)-ketamine before incision reduced the pain intensity only 12 hours after surgical incision and did not alter concentration of cytokines.

JUSTIFICATIVA Y OBJETIVOS: Algunos estudios han demostrado que la cetamina inhibe la producción de citocinas. El objetivo de este estudio, fue evaluar el efecto analgésico de prevención y citocinas plasmáticas (IL-6, TNF-α y IL-10) de S(+)-cetamina por vía epidural en la histerectomía. MÉTODO: Fue realizado un estudio doble ciego en 29 pacientes. Pacientes del Grupo 1 recibieron 13 mL de bupivacaína al 0,25 por ciento con 25 mg de S(+)-cetamina 30 minutos antes de la incisión quirúrgica, y 15 mL de solución salina fisiológica 30 minutos después de la incisión por vía epidural. Pacientes del Grupo 2, recibieron 15 mL de salina 30 minutos antes de la incisión quirúrgica, seguido de 13 mL de bupivacaína al 0,25 por ciento, más 25 mg de S (+)-cetamina 30 minutos después. La analgesia postoperatoria se realizó con bupivacaína y fentanil por vía epidural. Cuando fue necesario, se usó 1 g de dipirona. Se evaluaron: la concentración de citocinas, la intensidad del dolor, el tiempo de la primera solicitación del analgésico, y la cantidad total de analgésico utilizado. RESULTADOS: El tiempo para la primera solicitación de analgésico fue de 61,5 minutos en el Grupo 1 y 69,0 en el Grupo 2, sin haber diferencias entre los grupos. No hubo diferencias entre los grupos para la dosis total de fentanil usada en el Grupo 1 (221,4 µg) y en el Grupo 2 (223,3 µg). Se obtuvo un efecto analgésico parecido en los grupos, con excepción en T12 (Grupo 1 = 2,4 ± 3,2; Grupo 2 = 5,5 ± 3,4). No fue observada diferencia entre los grupos en la concentración de citocinas. CONCLUSIONES: La inyección de 25 mg de S(+)-cetamina por vía epidural antes de la incisión, redujo la intensidad del dolor solamente 12 horas después de la incisión quirúrgica y no alteró la concentración de citocinas.

Evaluation of preemptive effect of epidural S(+)-ketamine for hysterectomy: plasmatic concentrations of interleukins.

BACKGROUND AND OBJECTIVES: Some studies showed that ketamine inhibits the production of cytokines. The objective of this study was to evaluate the preemptive analgesic effect of epidural S(+)-ketamine in hysterectomy and plasmatic cytokines (IL-6, TNF-α and IL-10). METHOD: A double-blinded study with 29 patients was conducted. Patients in Group 1 received 13 mL of 0.25% bupivacaine with 25mg of S(+)- ketamine 30 minutes before surgical incision and 15 mL of saline solution via the epidural route 30 minutes after. Patients in Group 2 received 15 mL of saline solution 30 minutes before the surgical incision, followed by 13 mL of 0.25% bupivacaine with 25mg of S(+)-ketamine 30 minutes after. Postoperative analgesia was made with epidural bupivacaine and fentanyl. Dipyrone 1 g was used whenever required. The following paramenters were evaluated: concentration of cytokines, intensity of pain, time of first request of analgesic and total quantity of analgesic used. RESULTS: Time for the first request for analgesics was 61.5 minutes in Group 1 and 69.0 in Group 2, without difference between these groups. There was no difference for total dose of fentanyl used in Group 1 (221.4 µg) and Group 2 (223.3 µg). A similar analgesic effect was obtained in both groups, except in T12 (Group 1 = 2.4±3.2; Group 2 = 5.5±3.4). No differences in concentration of cytokines were observed. CONCLUSIONS: The epidural injection of 25mg S(+)-ketamine before incision reduced the pain intensity only 12 hours after surgical incision and did not alter concentration of cytokines.

Avaliação do efeito da estimulação nervosa elétrica transcutânea (TENS) para analgesia após toracotomia / Assessing the effects of transcutaneous electrical nerve stimulation (TENS) in post-thoracotomy analgesia

JUSTIFICATIVA E OBJETIVOS: A estimulação nervosa elétrica transcutânea (TENS) é uma modalidade frequentemente usada para o tratamento da dor musculoesquelética, mas também pode ser indicada em caso de analgesia pós-operatória. O objetivo deste estudo foi avaliar o efeito analgésico da TENS após toracotomia. MÉTODO: Foram incluídos 30 pacientes entre 18 e 60 anos submetidos à toracotomia para ressecção de câncer pulmonar, no segundo dia após a operação, alocados em dois grupos, G1 e G2. Os pacientes do G1 foram submetidos ao tratamento com TENS; nos do G2 (sem TENS), os eletrodos foram colocados, porém o aparelho não foi ligado. A TENS foi mantida por uma hora. A avaliação do efeito analgésico ocorreu através da escala analógica visual em três momentos: antes da aplicação (M0), imediatamente após o término do procedimento (M1) e uma hora depois (M2), com o paciente em repouso, em elevação dos membros superiores, com mudança de decúbito e tosse. RESULTADOS: A intensidade da dor em repouso foi maior em G2 imediatamente após o término, mas não uma hora após o procedimento. Com elevação dos membros superiores, mudança de decúbito e tosse, não houve diferença entre os grupos. CONCLUSÕES: Com aplicação de TENS durante uma hora no segundo dia após toracotomia em pacientes que receberam fentanil (50 µg) associada à bupivacaína (5 mL) em repouso, houve diminuição da intensidade da dor imediatamente após o término da aplicação; com elevação dos membros superiores e mudança de decúbito e tosse não houve redução da intensidade da dor.

BACKGROUND AND OBJECTIVES: Transcutaneous electrical nerve stimulation (TENS) is commonly used to treat musculoskeletal pain, but it may also be indicated for postoperative analgesia. The objective of this study was to evaluate the analgesic effects of TENS on post-thoracotomy. METHODS: Thirty patients between 18 and 60 years of age undergoing thoracotomy for lung cancer resection on the second postoperative day were included in this study. Patients were divided into two groups (G1 and G2). G1 patients were treated with TENS; and in G2 (without TENS) electrodes were placed but the equipment was not turned on. TENS was maintained for one hour. The visual analogue scale was used to evaluate the analgesic effects on three moments: before TENS (M0), immediately after TENS (M1), and one hour later (M2), with the patient at rest, elevation of the upper limbs, change in decubitus, and coughing. RESULTS: The intensity of pain at rest was higher in G2 immediately after TENS, but not one hour after the procedure. There was no difference between both groups with elevation of the upper limbs, decubitus change, and coughing. CONCLUSIONS: With the use of TENS for one hour on the second post-thoracotomy day in patients who received fentanyl (50 µg) associated with bupivacaine (5 mL), a reduction in pain intensity was observed at rest immediately after TENS; with elevation of the upper limbs, change in decubitus, and coughing, a reduction in pain severity was not observed.

JUSTIFICATIVA Y OBJETIVOS: La estimulación nerviosa eléctrica transcutánea (TENS), es una modalidad frecuentemente usada para el tratamiento del dolor musculoesquelético, pero también puede ser indicada en caso de analgesia postoperatoria. El objetivo de este estudio fue evaluar el efecto analgésico de la TENS después de la toracotomía. MÉTODO: Se incluyeron 30 pacientes entre 18 y 60 años, sometidos a la toracotomía para la resección de cáncer pulmonar, en el segundo día después de la operación. Los pacientes del G1 se sometieron al tratamiento con TENS; en los del G2 (sin TENS), se colocaron los electrodos, pero el aparato no se encendió. La TENS se mantuvo durante una hora. La evaluación del efecto analgésico se dio a través de la escala analógica visual en tres momentos: antes de la aplicación (M0), inmediatamente después del término del procedimiento (M1) y una hora después (M2), con el paciente en reposo, la elevación de los miembros superiores, el cambio de decúbito y con tos. RESULTADOS: La intensidad del dolor en el estado de reposo fue más elevada en el G2, inmediatamente después del término, pero no una hora después del procedimiento. Con la elevación de los miembros superiores, el cambio de decúbito y la tos, no hubo diferencia entre los grupos. CONCLUSIONES: Con la aplicación de TENS durante una hora en el segundo día después de la toracotomía en pacientes que recibieron fentanil (50 µg), asociada a la bupivacaína (5 mL) en reposo, se registró una reducción en la intensidad del dolor inmediatamente después del término de la aplicación. Pero con la elevación de los miembros superiores, el cambio de decúbito y la tos, no hubo reducción en la intensidad del dolor.

Assessing the effects of transcutaneous electrical nerve stimulation (TENS) in post-thoracotomy analgesia.

BACKGROUND AND OBJECTIVES: Transcutaneous electrical nerve stimulation (TENS) is commonly used to treat musculoskeletal pain, but it may also be indicated for postoperative analgesia. The objective of this study was to evaluate the analgesic effects of TENS on post-thoracotomy. METHODS: Thirty patients between 18 and 60 years of age undergoing thoracotomy for lung cancer resection on the second postoperative day were included in this study. Patients were divided into two groups (G1 and G2). G1 patients were treated with TENS; and in G2 (without TENS) electrodes were placed but the equipment was not turned on. TENS was maintained for one hour. The visual analogue scale was used to evaluate the analgesic effects on three moments: before TENS (M0), immediately after TENS (M1), and one hour later (M2), with the patient at rest, elevation of the upper limbs, change in decubitus, and coughing. RESULTS: The intensity of pain at rest was higher in G2 immediately after TENS, but not one hour after the procedure. There was no difference between both groups with elevation of the upper limbs, decubitus change, and coughing. CONCLUSIONS: With the use of TENS for one hour on the second post-thoracotomy day in patients who received fentanyl (50 µg) associated with bupivacaine (5 mL), a reduction in pain intensity was observed at rest immediately after TENS; with elevation of the upper limbs, change in decubitus, and coughing, a reduction in pain severity was not observed.

Cytokines and pain.

BACKGROUND AND OBJECTIVES: Cytokines are necessary for the inflammatory response, favoring proper wound healing. However, exaggerated proinflammatory cytokine production can manifest systemically as hemodynamic instability or metabolic derangements. The objective of this review was to describe the effects of cytokines in pain. CONTENTS: This article reviews the effects of cytokines in pain. In diseases with acute or chronic inflammation, cytokines can be recognized by neurons and used to trigger several cell reactions that influence the activity, proliferation, and survival of immune cells, as well as the production and activity of other cytokines. Cytokines can be proinflammatory and anti-inflammatory. Proinflammatory cytokines are related with the pathophysiology of pain syndromes. Cells that secrete proinflammatory (IL-1, IL-2, IL-6, IL-7, and TNF) and anti-inflammatory (IL-4, IL-10, IL-13, and TGFß) cytokines, the functions of each cytokine, and the action of those compounds on pain processing, have been described. CONCLUSIONS: Cytokines have an important role in pain through different mechanisms in several sites of pain transmission pathways.

Citocinas e dor: [revisão] / Cytokines and pai: [review]

JUSTIFICATIVA E OBJETIVOS: As citocinas são substâncias necessárias para a resposta inflamatória, favorecendo a cicatrização apropriada da ferida. No entanto, a produção exagerada de citocinas pró-inflamatórias a partir da lesão pode manifestar-se sistemicamente com instabilidade hemodinâmica ou distúrbios metabólicos. O objetivo desta revisão foi descrever os efeitos das citocinas na dor. CONTEÚDO: Este artigo faz uma revisão dos efeitos das citocinas na dor. Em doenças que cursam com processo inflamatório agudo ou crônico, as citocinas podem ser reconhecidas por neurônios e utilizadas para desencadear diversas reações celulares que influenciam na atividade, proliferação e sobrevida da célula imunológica, bem como na produção e atividade de outras citocinas. As citocinas podem ser pró-inflamatórias e anti-inflamatórias. As pró-inflamatórias estão relacionadas com a fisiopatologia das síndromes dolorosas. Foram descritas as células que secretam as citocinas, as citocinas pró-inflamatórias (IL-1, IL-2, IL-6, IL-7 e FNT) e anti-inflamatórias (IL-4, IL-10, IL-13 e FTCβ), as funções de cada citocina e como ocorre a ação dessas substâncias no processamento da dor. CONCLUSÕES: As citocinas desempenham importante papel na dor, agindo através de diferentes mecanismos em vários locais das vias de transmissão da dor.

BACKGROUND AND OBJECTIVES: Cytokines are necessary for the inflammatory response, favoring proper wound healing. However, exaggerated proinflammatory cytokine production can manifest systemically as hemodynamic instability or metabolic derangements. The objective of this review was to describe the effects of cytokines in pain. CONTENTS: This article reviews the effects of cytokines in pain. In diseases with acute or chronic inflammation, cytokines can be recognized by neurons and used to trigger several cell reactions that influence the activity, proliferation, and survival of immune cells, as well as the production and activity of other cytokines. Cytokines can be proinflammatory and anti-inflammatory. Proinflammatory cytokines are related with the pathophysiology of pain syndromes. Cells that secrete proinflammatory (IL-1, IL-2, IL-6, IL-7, and TNF) and anti-inflammatory (IL-4, IL-10, IL-13, and TGFβ) cytokines, the functions of each cytokine, and the action of those compounds on pain processing, have been described. CONCLUSIONS: Cytokines have an important role in pain through different mechanisms in several sites of pain transmission pathways.

JUSTIFICATIVA Y OBJETIVOS: Las citocinas son sustancias necesarias para la respuesta inflamatoria, favoreciendo la cicatrización apropiada de la herida. Sin embargo, la producción exagerada de citocinas proinflamatorias a partir de la lesión puede manifestarse sistémicamente con la inestabilidad hemodinámica o disturbios metabólicos. El objetivo de esta revisión fue describir los efectos de las citocinas en el dolor. CONTENIDO: Este artículo intenta hacer una revisión de los efectos de las citocinas en el dolor. En enfermedades que se manifiestan con un proceso inflamatorio agudo o crónico, las citocinas pueden ser reconocidas por las neuronas y utilizadas para desencadenar diversas reacciones celulares que influyen en la actividad, proliferación y sobrevida de la célula inmunológica, como también en la producción y en la actividad de otras citocinas. Las citocinas pueden ser proinflamatorias y antiinflamatorias. Las proinflamatorias tienen una relación con la fisiopatología de los síndromes dolorosos. Ya se han descrito las células que segregan las citocinas, las citocinas proinflamatorias (IL-1, IL-2, IL-6, IL-7 y FNT) y antiinflamatorias (IL-4, IL-10, IL-13 y FTCβ), las funciones de cada citocina y también cómo ocurre la acción de esas sustancias en el proceso del dolor. CONCLUSIONES: Las citocinas desempeñan un rol muy importante en el dolor, actuando por medio de diferentes mecanismos en varios locales de las vías de transmisión del dolor.

Effect of intravenous lidocaine associated with amitriptyline on pain relief and plasma serotonin, norepinephrine, and dopamine concentrations in fibromyalgia.

OBJECTIVE: The objective of this study was to evaluate the effect of intravenous lidocaine combined with amitriptyline on pain relief and plasma serotonin, norepinephrine, and dopamine levels. METHODS: A prospective, randomized, double-blind comparative study was conducted in 30 patients. All patients received 25 mg amitriptyline; monotherapy group (n=15) received 125 mL saline, and combined therapy group (n=15) received 240 mg lidocaine in 125 mL saline once a week for 4 weeks. Serotonin, norepinephrine, and dopamine were measured in plasma at time zero (T0) and after 4 weeks (T4). Pain intensity was rated on a numerical scale at the beginning of the study and weekly for 4 weeks. RESULTS: All patients were females and the mean age was 44.7±10.5 years for monotherapy group and 40.9±11.6 years for combined therapy group. No difference in pain intensity at baseline was observed between groups, with a decrease after treatment in monotherapy group (T0: 7.0±1.2 and T4: 4.0±2.1) and in combined therapy group (T0: 7.6±0.8 and T4: 4.1±2.3). Plasma serotonin and norepinephrine levels were similar in the 2 groups at T0 and T4. An increase in dopamine levels was observed in monotherapy group from the beginning to the end of treatment. CONCLUSIONS: Combined administration of 240 mg intravenous lidocaine (once a week) and 25 mg amitriptyline for 4 weeks did not modify pain intensity or plasma serotonin, norepinephrine, or dopamine concentrations in fibromyalgia patients.

Serum cytokine levels in patients with chronic low back pain due to herniated disc: analytical cross-sectional study.

CONTEXT AND OBJECTIVE: the role of immune response and proinflammatory cytokines in the pathogenesis of chronic pain has been of growing interest. In order to evaluate whether there is any association between disc herniation and elevated cytokine levels, we measured cytokine levels in patients with chronic low back pain and in healthy subjects. DESIGN AND SETTING: analytical cross-sectional study at the Pain Clinic of Universidade Federal da Bahia (UFBA). METHODS: cytokine levels were measured using the enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) technique on 23 patients with low back pain (G1) and on 10 healthy subjects (G2). RESULTS: the levels of tumor necrosis factor-alpha [TNF-alpha] (G1 = 5.6 ± 2.3 pg/ml; G2 = 1.6 ± 0.5 pg/ml; P = 0.01) and interleukin-6 [IL-6] (G1 = 4.1 ± 3.0 pg/ml; G2 = 0.9 ± 0.4 pg/ml; P = 0.01) were higher in G1. There were no statistically significant differences in relation to interleukin-1 [IL-1] (G1 = 0.5 ± 0.3 pg/ml; G2 = 0.5 ± 0.1 pg/ml; P = 1) or soluble tumor necrosis factor receptor [sTNF-R] (G1 = 572 pg/ml ± 36; G2 = 581 ± 50 pg/ml; P = 0.87). CONCLUSION: The patients with chronic low back pain due to disc herniation presented higher levels of TNF-alpha and IL-6, but not of IL-1 or sTNF-R.

Fisiopatologia da dor pós-operatória / Pathophysiology of the post-surgical pain

Foi realizada revisão dos mecanismos fisiopatológicos da dor aguda pós-operatória, envolvendo fibras nervosas, estímulos e neurotransmissores. A lesão tecidual provoca liberação de mediadores inflamatórios com sensibilização periférica. Os estímulos atingem a medula espinal, com alterações da plasticidade e sensibilização central.

Pacientes com fibromialgia atendidos no Ambulatório de Dor da Unifesp / Fibromyalgia patients attended in the outpatients Pain Sector of Federal University of São Paulo

Foi feita análise de prontuários de pacientes com fibromialgia atendidos no Setor de Dor da Unifesp no período de um ano, anotando dados, como idade, sexo, estado civil, ocupação, outras síndromes dolorosas associadas e tratamentos.

Intraoperative intravenous lidocaine.

BACKGROUND AND OBJECTIVES: Most patients undergoing surgery experience moderate to severe pain, indicating the need to improve the anesthetic technique. Intravenous lidocaine has been widely used in the treatment of chronic pain. The objective of this report was to review the use of intravenous lidocaine for postoperative analgesia. CONTENTS: The pharmacologic aspects and mechanism of action of lidocaine as well as clinical studies in which the authors used intraoperative lidocaine were reviewed. CONCLUSIONS: Intravenous lidocaine can promote analgesia in surgical procedures, representing another alternative for the treatment of acute pain. Controlled studies with different surgical interventions could bring more information on this modality of analgesia.

Avaliação do custo do medicamento para tratamento ambulatorial de pacientes com dor crônica / Evaluación del coste del medicamento para el tratamiento ambulatorial de pacientes con dolor crónico / Evaluating the cost of drugs used in the outpatient treatment of chronic pain

JUSTIFICATIVA E OBJETIVOS: A dor crônica é muito prevalente e o custo do tratamento pode ter impacto relevante sobre as pessoas e a sociedade. O objetivo deste estudo foi avaliar os custos mensais médios dos medicamentos para tratamento ambulatorial da dor crônica. MÉTODO: Neste estudo, analisou-se o custo de medicamentos empregados por 233 pacientes com dor crônica (117 com dor nociceptiva, 59 com dor neuropática e 57 com dor mista) e atendidos no Centro Alfa da UNIFESP, entre janeiro de 2004 e janeiro de 2008. RESULTADOS: A média de custos geral foi de R$127,74 (custo mínimo de R$5,00 e máximo de R$780,00). CONCLUSÕES: O estudo revelou que os custos de medicamentos não diferem de forma significativa, levando-se em conta o tipo de dor envolvida.

BACKGROUND AND OBJECTIVES: Chronic pain is very prevalent and the cost of its treatment can cause a relevant impact on people and society. The objective of this study was to evaluate the monthly cost of drugs used in the outpatient treatment of chronic pain. METHODS: In the present study the cost of the drugs used by 233 patients with chronic pain (117 with nociceptive pain, 59 with neuropathic pain, and 57 with mixed pain) followed at the Alpha Center of UNIFESP between January 2004 and January 2008 was evaluated. RESULTS: The mean general cost was R$ 127.74 (from R$ 5.00 to R$ 780.00). CONCLUSIONS: This study showed that the cost of the drugs does not differ significantly taking into consideration the type of pain.

JUSTIFICATIVA Y OBJETIVOS: El dolor crónico ocurre muy a menudo y el coste del tratamiento puede tener un impacto relevante en las personas y en la sociedad. El objetivo de este estudio fue evaluar los costes mensuales promedios de los medicamentos para el tratamiento ambulatorial del dolor crónico. MÉTODO: En este estudio, analizamos el coste de los medicamentos utilizados por 233 pacientes con dolor crónico (117 con dolor nociceptivo, 59 con dolor neuropático y 57 con dolor mixto), y que fueron atendidos en el Centro Alfa de la UNIFESP, entre enero de 2004 y enero de 2008. RESULTADOS: El promedio general de los costes rondó los R$ 127,74 (coste mínimo de R$ 5,00 y máximo de R$ 780,00). CONCLUSIONES: El estudio reveló que los costes de medicamentos no son diferentes de forma significativa, teniendo en cuenta el tipo de dolor que existe.

Evaluating the cost of drugs used in the outpatient treatment of chronic pain.

BACKGROUND AND OBJECTIVES: Chronic pain is very prevalent and the cost of its treatment can cause a relevant impact on people and society. The objective of this study was to evaluate the monthly cost of drugs used in the outpatient treatment of chronic pain. METHODS: In the present study the cost of the drugs used by 233 patients with chronic pain (117 with nociceptive pain, 59 with neuropathic pain, and 57 with mixed pain) followed at the Alpha Center of UNIFESP between January 2004 and January 2008 was evaluated. RESULTS: The mean general cost was R$ 127.74 (from R$ 5.00 to R$ 780.00). CONCLUSIONS: This study showed that the cost of the drugs does not differ significantly taking into consideration the type of pain.

Epidural versus intravenous fentanyl for postoperative analgesia following orthopedic surgery: randomized controlled trial.

CONTEXT AND OBJECTIVE: Controversy exists regarding the site of action of fentanyl after epidural injection. The objective of this investigation was to compare the efficacy of epidural and intravenous fentanyl for orthopedic surgery. DESIGN AND SETTING: A randomized double-blind study was performed in Hospital São Paulo. METHODS: During the postoperative period, in the presence of pain, 29 patients were divided into two groups: group 1 (n = 14) received 100 microg of fentanyl epidurally and 2 ml of saline intravenously; group 2 (n = 15) received 5 ml of saline epidurally and 100 microg of fentanyl intravenously. The analgesic supplementation consisted of 40 mg of tenoxicam intravenously and, if necessary, 5 ml of 0.25% bupivacaine epidurally. Pain intensity was evaluated on a numerical scale and plasma concentrations of fentanyl were measured simultaneously. RESULTS: The percentage of patients who required supplementary analgesia with tenoxicam was lower in group 1 (71.4%) than in group 2 (100%): 95% confidence interval (CI) = 0.001-0.4360 (P = 0.001, Fisher's exact test; relative risk, RR = 0.07). Epidural bupivacaine supplementation was also lower in group 1 (14.3%) than in group 2 (53.3%): 95% CI = 0.06-1.05 (P = 0.03, Fisher's exact test; RR = 0.26). There was no difference in pain intensity on the numerical scale. Mean fentanyl plasma concentrations were similar in the two groups. CONCLUSION: Intravenous and epidural fentanyl appear to have similar efficacy for reducing pain according to the numerical scale, but supplementary analgesia was needed less frequently when epidural fentanyl was used. CLINICAL TRIAL REGISTRATION NUMBER: NCT00635986.