Clean feed as countermeasure to reduce the 90Sr and 137Cs levels in fish from contaminated lakes.

Glubokoye Lake situated within the Chernobyl Exclusion Zone is highly contaminated with respect to radioactive caesium and strontium isotopes, which also is reflected in the contaminated fish. To utilize the fish resources in contaminated lakes, the present work presents for the first time the effectiveness of using clean feed to counteract contamination of radionuclides in fish. The study is based on a series of repeated experiments with Prussian carp (Carassius gibelio (Bloch, 1782)) kept in cages in the contaminated Glubokoye Lake during summer 2018-2021. By the addition of clean feed, the activity concentration of 137Cs in fish muscle tissues was lowered with a factor of 2-5 due to biodilution. Surprisingly, additional clean feed did not lead to further decrease in the uptake of 137Cs in fish. In contrast to 137Cs, the addition of clean feed increased the 90Sr activity concentration in fish by a factor of 2-4 compared to fish fed with naturally occurring feed items. Radioactive strontium accumulated mainly in the fish bones and the muscle tissue level was 2 orders of magnitude lower, similar to the distribution observed for stable Sr. By utilizing a new kinetic model describing the dynamics of strontium isotopes in bone tissues of fish, predictions fitted well with site-specific data, taking growth rates and aging into account. Results showed that clean feeding can be used to counteract high activity concentration of 137Cs in fish due to biodilution, but cannot counteract bioaccumulation of 90Sr. Findings highlighted that it is essential to understand underlying factors influencing the uptake pathways for contaminants, as access to clean feed could increase the growth and thereby reduce the body activity concentration of dietary associated radionuclides such as 137Cs (biodilution), as well as increase the transfer of dissolved compounds such as 90Sr directly from water to fish.

Scientific and Regulatory Policy Committee Best Practices: Recommended ("Best") Practices for Informed (Non-blinded) Versus Masked (Blinded) Microscopic Evaluation in Animal Toxicity Studies.

This article describes the Society of Toxicologic Pathology's (STP) five recommended ("best") practices for appropriate use of informed (non-blinded) versus masked (blinded) microscopic evaluation in animal toxicity studies intended for regulatory review. (1) Informed microscopic evaluation is the default approach for animal toxicity studies. (2) Masked microscopic evaluation has merit for confirming preliminary diagnoses for target organs and/or defining thresholds ("no observed adverse effect level" and similar values) identified during an initial informed evaluation, addressing focused hypotheses, or satisfying guidance or requests from regulatory agencies. (3) If used as the approach for an animal toxicity study to investigate a specific research question, masking of the initial microscopic evaluation should be limited to withholding only information about the group (control or test article-treated) and dose equivalents. (4) The decision regarding whether or not to perform a masked microscopic evaluation is best made by a toxicologic pathologist with relevant experience. (5) Pathology peer review, performed to verify the microscopic diagnoses and interpretations by the study pathologist, should use an informed evaluation approach. The STP maintains that implementing these five best practices has and will continue to consistently deliver robust microscopic data with high sensitivity for animal toxicity studies intended for regulatory review. Consequently, when conducting animal toxicity studies, the advantages of informed microscopic evaluation for maximizing sensitivity outweigh the perceived advantages of minimizing bias through masked microscopic examination.

In-depth understanding of local soil chemistry reveals that addition of Ca may counteract the mobilisation of 226Ra and other pollutants before wetland creation on the Grote Nete river banks.

The "Sigma plan" https://www.sigmaplan.be/en/ aims to create in Belgium inundation zones along the Grote Nete river to prevent Antwerp from flooding in extreme weather conditions. The riverbanks of the Grote Nete are at some hotspots historically contaminated by the phosphate industry resulting in Naturally Occurring Radionuclides (NOR) legacy. 226Ra is from a radiation protection point of view one of the most important radionuclides present at the hot spot under study, with a local soil activity concentration higher than 3000 Bq/kg 226Ra. In this paper, we identify the most relevant mechanisms governing the mobility of 226Ra. We selected for this study the role of CaSO4.2H2O, clay minerals and humic acids as the main contributors determining the speciation of Ra, due to their presence at the hot spot, their cation exchange capacity and their functional group density, respectively. Various novel analytical chemistry approaches were developed to study the prevailing reaction mechanisms that impact the solid-liquid distribution of 226Ra. We show that 226Ra coprecipitates in a (Ca,Ra)SO4 solid solution due to the high Ca2+ and SO42- concentrations in the local hot spot. If CaSO4.2H2O is not saturated in the soil solution, 226Ra adsorption to clay minerals counteracts the tendency of 226Ra partitioning to the liquid phase by interactions with humic and fulvic acids. Interactions between different soil compounds may further alter the partitioning of Ra. As, Cd, Pb and Zn in the hot spot are significantly above background values in Flemish sediments. Pb may be coprecipitated as sulphate salts, whereas Cd and Zn are most probably partially present as arsenate salts. The excess of Zn may interact with humic acids. The observed reaction mechanisms suggest that Ca2+ might play a key role in the immobilisation of Ra. The role of Ca2+ as immobilisation agent of the other contaminants is discussed.

Seasonal changes in uptake and depuration of 137Cs and 90Sr in silver Prussian carp (Carassius gibelio) and common rudd (Scardinius erythrophthalmus).

Dynamic transfer of radionuclides to fish was studied in a series of experiments under field condition in two lakes within the Chernobyl exclusion zone during 2016-2020. "Clean" common rudd (Scardinius erythrophthalmus) and silver Prussian carp (Carassius gibelio) were transported to the contaminated Glubokoye Lake and kept in cages during several months of exposure, while contaminated Glubokoye fish were kept in cages in the "clean" Starukha Lake. Radiocaesium (137Cs) and radiostrontium (90Sr) were determined in intestine contents, muscle and bone tissues based on repeated samples during several months of exposure. During summer, the activity concentrations of 137Cs and 90Sr increased with time of exposure in clean fish caged in the contaminated lake. During autumn and winter, however, minor changes in fish uptake occurred during several weeks of exposure to the contaminated water. Furthermore, depuration in the contaminated fish was significant during summer, while insignificant during winter when exposed in the «clean¼ water. The rate constant of 137Cs uptake in muscle was between 8.0 and 22 day-1 during summer, while 0.2 to 1.0 day-1 during autumn-winter. Similarly, the rate constant of 90Sr uptake in bone was between 1.4 and 1.6 day-1, while 0.08-0.52 day-1 during autumn-winter. Biological half-lives of 137Cs in fish muscle tissue in summer were 77 ± 10 days, while exceeded 230 days during seasons at low water temperature. The results demonstrated that the transfer of 137Cs and 90Sr to fish was highly dependent upon seasons, in particular the water temperature. The transfer data obtained during low water temperature seasons deviated significantly from transfer data in literature and handbooks. Thus, seasonal changes in radionuclide transfer to fish should be taken into account when radiological impact to fish is assessed.

Draft Genome Sequences of 3 Strains of Apilactobacillus kunkeei Isolated from the Bee Gut Microbial Community.

Apilactobacillus kunkeei is a fructophilic lactic acid bacterium found in fructose-rich environments such as flowers, fruits, fermented food, honey, and honeydew, as well as in the guts of fructose-feeding insects. We report here the draft genome sequences of three Apilactobacillus kunkeei strains isolated from the gut microbial community of three honeybees.

Opinion on Current Use of Non-Blinded Versus Blinded Histopathologic Evaluation in Animal Toxicity Studies.

The Society of Toxicologic Pathology (STP) explored current institutional practices for selecting between non-blinded versus blinded histopathologic evaluation during Good Laboratory Practice (GLP)-compliant, regulatory-type animal toxicity studies using a multi-question survey and STP-wide discussion (held at the 2019 STP annual meeting). Survey responses were received from 107 individuals representing 83 institutions that collectively employ 589 toxicologic pathologists. Most responses came from industry (N = 46, mainly biopharmaceutical or contract research organizations) and consultants (N = 24). For GLP-compliant animal toxicity studies, histopathologic evaluation usually involves initial (primary) non-blinded analysis, with post hoc informal blinded re-examination at the study pathologist's discretion to confirm subtle findings or establish thresholds. Initial blinded histopathologic evaluation sometimes is chosen by study pathologists to test formal hypotheses and/or by sponsors to address non-pathologist expectations about histopathology data objectivity. Current practice is that a blinded histopathologic evaluation is documented only if formal blinding (ie, using slides with coded labels) is employed, using simple statements without detailed methodology in the study protocol (or an amendment) and/or pathology report. Blinding is not an appropriate strategy for the initial histopathologic evaluation performed during pathology peer reviews of GLP-compliant animal toxicity studies. [Box: see text].

International Regulatory Guiding Documents and Best Practice Recommendations on Peripheral Nervous System (PNS) Histopathologic Evaluation in Good Laboratory Practice (GLP)-Compliant Animal Toxicity Studies.

Assessment of the peripheral nervous system (PNS) tissues during animal toxicity studies generally is included within guiding documents issued by regulatory agencies of individual nations (eg, US Environmental Protection Agency, US Food and Drug Administration) and multinational federations (eg, European Medicines Agency) as well as international cooperative efforts (eg, International Council for Harmonisation of Technical Requirements for Pharmaceuticals for Human Use, Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development). The present list of major regulatory guiding documents categorizes recommendations from around the world for sampling and processing PNS tissues (nerves and ganglia) for general animal toxicity studies (ie, where neurotoxicity is not expected) and specialized neurotoxicity studies (ie, where neurotoxicity is anticipated or known to occur). In general, regulatory guidelines call for collection of one or more sensorimotor nerves (usually the sciatic trunk and its branches), though details vary among agencies. Regulatory guiding documents represent a "starting point," after which additional PNS samples and/or special methods may be implemented at the applicant's discretion. Best practice recommendations for PNS sampling and processing in animal toxicity studies endorsed by multiple global societies of toxicologic pathology encompass and expand on existing regulatory guidelines.

Comparison of hippocampal volume measurement by autopsy and post-mortem magnetic resonance imaging.

We present an autopsy-validated, non-invasive, magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) based segmentation algorithm, for determining hippocampal volume. A segmentation algorithm was developed to assess the volume of the hippocampus. Deceased individuals with severe mental illness were used to evaluate the use of MRI imaging to determine hippocampal volume as this group has previously been associated with altered hippocampal volume diagnosed on MRI. The accuracy of the MR- scanning protocol for volume measurement was tested on a water filled phantom control with a known volume of 500 ml, and a difference of 0.08% was found. Thus the scanning protocol was deemed to have produced acceptable results when comparing volume measures of a pair of segmented hippocampi obtained at the 1 T MR scanner and a 3 T MR scanner using the software program Mimics®. The segmentation algorithm was tested by a volume comparison obtained using anterior and posterior landmarks (in situ) and the exact volume of the dissected hippocampus (ex situ). The in situ and ex situ hippocampal volumes were highly correlated; R2 was 96%, with a mean difference of 4-5%. Cases were also examined for intra- and inter-observer agreement. This study presents a validated segmentation algorithm that can be used to determine the hippocampal volume using post-mortem MR and anatomical landmarks.

Vitellogenin expression in the oilseed rape pest Meligethes aeneus.

When investigating insecticide resistance of pest insects, for example, the pollen beetle Meligethes aeneus, it is relevant to differentiate toxicological and molecular genetic data between male and female specimens. A molecular sex determination method would allow resistance testing to be run without prior sorting of the samples. A one-step quantitative RT-PCR method for quantification of the yolk protein vitellogenin expression in the pollen beetle was established. The expression level of vitellogenin relative to tubulin was determined. Pollen beetles were tested at different time points during their development to determine if vitellogenin is a reliable molecular marker for detection of sexually mature females. The differentiation between females and males by relative expression of vitellogenin to tubulin is conditional regarding the life cycle. Sexually mature females and males could easily be distinguished, whereas immature specimens could not be seperated. Vitellogenin expression is a successful marker for identification of sexually mature pollen beetles. Females from the spring populations showed vitellogenin expression when the temperature was above 10.2°C. Further, detailed observations of vitellogenin throughout the spring indicated a strong relationship between daily temperatures and vitellogenin expression, which is an indicator of oviposition ability.

Tracing simultaneous cadmium accumulation from different uptake routes in brown crab Cancer pagurus by the use of stable isotopes.

High concentrations of cadmium in brown crab are an issue of food safety, and large variations between different areas have been found. To investigate the relative importance of dietary and aqueous uptake regarding the overall accumulation in brown crab, we used stable isotopes to trace the uptake from both routes simultaneously in the same animals. We demonstrated that the analytical challenges regarding background concentrations of natural isotope distribution and polyatomic interferences in the different matrices can be overcome with an appropriate analytical setup and modern mathematical corrections using a computer software. Cadmium was accumulated via both routes and was found in all measured organs at the end of the exposure phase. The obtained data were used to establish accumulation curves for both uptake routes and estimate accumulation parameters for hepatopancreas, as the most important organ in crab regarding total cadmium body burden. Using the estimated parameters in combination with naturally relevant cadmium concentrations in seawater and diet in a model, allowed us to predict the relative importance of the aqueous and dietary uptake route to the total hepatopancreas burden. According to the prediction, the dietary route is the main route of uptake in brown crab with a minimum of 98% of the accumulated cadmium in hepatopancreas originating from diet. Future studies addressing the source and accumulation of cadmium in crab should therefore focus on the uptake from feed and factors connected to foraging.

STP Position Paper: Recommended Best Practices for Sampling, Processing, and Analysis of the Peripheral Nervous System (Nerves and Somatic and Autonomic Ganglia) during Nonclinical Toxicity Studies.

Peripheral nervous system (PNS) toxicity is surveyed inconsistently in nonclinical general toxicity studies. These Society of Toxicologic Pathology "best practice" recommendations are designed to ensure consistent, efficient, and effective sampling, processing, and evaluation of PNS tissues for four different situations encountered during nonclinical general toxicity (screening) and dedicated neurotoxicity studies. For toxicity studies where neurotoxicity is unknown or not anticipated (situation 1), PNS evaluation may be limited to one sensorimotor spinal nerve. If somatic PNS neurotoxicity is suspected (situation 2), analysis minimally should include three spinal nerves, multiple dorsal root ganglia, and a trigeminal ganglion. If autonomic PNS neuropathy is suspected (situation 3), parasympathetic and sympathetic ganglia should be assessed. For dedicated neurotoxicity studies where a neurotoxic effect is expected (situation 4), PNS sampling follows the strategy for situations 2 and/or 3, as dictated by functional or other compound/target-specific data. For all situations, bilateral sampling with unilateral processing is acceptable. For situations 1-3, PNS is processed conventionally (immersion in buffered formalin, paraffin embedding, and hematoxylin and eosin staining). For situation 4 (and situations 2 and 3 if resources and timing permit), perfusion fixation with methanol-free fixative is recommended. Where PNS neurotoxicity is suspected or likely, at least one (situations 2 and 3) or two (situation 4) nerve cross sections should be postfixed with glutaraldehyde and osmium before hard plastic resin embedding; soft plastic embedding is not a suitable substitute for hard plastic. Special methods may be used if warranted to further characterize PNS findings. Initial PNS analysis should be informed, not masked ("blinded"). Institutions may adapt these recommendations to fit their specific programmatic requirements but may need to explain in project documentation the rationale for their chosen PNS sampling, processing, and evaluation strategy.

A Prospective Study Comparing 99mTc-Hydroxyethylene-Diphosphonate Planar Bone Scintigraphy and Whole-Body SPECT/CT with 18F-Fluoride PET/CT and 18F-Fluoride PET/MRI for Diagnosing Bone Metastases.

We prospectively evaluated and compared the diagnostic performance of 99mTc-hydroxyethylene-diphosphonate (99mTc-HDP) planar bone scintigraphy (pBS), 99mTc-HDP SPECT/CT, 18F-NaF PET/CT, and 18F-NaF PET/MRI for the detection of bone metastases. Methods: One hundred seventeen patients with histologically proven malignancy referred for clinical pBS were prospectively enrolled. pBS and whole-body SPECT/CT were performed followed by 18F-NaF PET/CT within 9 d. 18F-NaF PET/MRI was also performed in 46 patients. Results: Bone metastases were confirmed in 16 patients and excluded in 101, which was lower than expected. The number of equivocal scans was significantly higher for pBS than for SPECT/CT and PET/CT (18 vs. 5 and 6, respectively; P = 0.004 and 0.01, respectively). When equivocal readings were excluded, no statistically significant difference in sensitivity, specificity, positive predictive value, negative predictive value, or overall accuracy were found when comparing the different imaging techniques. In the per-patient analysis, equivocal scans were either assumed positive for metastases ("pessimistic analysis") or assumed negative for metastases ("optimistic analysis"). The percentages of misdiagnosed patients for the pessimistic analysis were 21%, 15%, 9%, and 7% for pBS, SPECT/CT, PET/CT, and PET/MRI, respectively. Corresponding figures for the optimistic analysis were 9%, 12%, 5%, and 7%. In those patients identified as having bone metastases according to the reference standard, SPECT/CT, 18F-NaF PET/CT, and PET/MRI detected additional lesions compared with pBS in 31%, 63%, and 71%, respectively. Conclusion:18F-NaF PET/CT and whole-body SPECT/CT resulted in a significant reduction of equivocal readings compared with pBS, which implies an improved diagnostic confidence. However, the clinical benefit of using, for example, 18F-NaF PET/CT or PET/MRI as compared with SPECT/CT and pBS in this patient population with a relatively low prevalence of bone metastases (14%) is likely limited. This conclusion is influenced by the low prevalence of patients with osseous metastases. There may well be significant differences in the sensitivity of SPECT/CT, PET/CT, and PET/MRI compared with pBS, but a larger patient population or a patient population with a higher prevalence of bone metastases would have to be studied to demonstrate this.

Deeper Insight in Beehives: Metagenomes of Royal Jelly, Pollen, and Honey from Lavender, Chestnut, and Fir Honeydew and Epiphytic and Endophytic Microbiota of Lavender and Rose Flowers.

Microbiota of beehive products are very little known. We report here for the first time six metagenomes of royal jelly, pollen, and different types of honey from wild and cultivated lavender, chestnut, and fir honeydew. Four metagenomes of epiphytic and endophytic microbiota of lavender and rose flowers are also reported.

Osseous osteoarthritic-like changes and joint mobility of the temporomandibular joints and upper cervical spine: is there a relation?

OBJECTIVES: To compare 1) temporomandibular joint (TMJ) mobility between patients with and without reduced upper cervical spine (UCS) mobility and with and without TMJ osseous osteoarthritic-like changes, and 2) UCS osseous changes between patients with and without TMJ osseous osteoarthritic-like changes and with and without reduced UCS mobility. STUDY DESIGN: The study comprised 39 patients without pain from TMJ or UCS and with obstructive sleep apnea, 15 women (age range 26-72 years, mean 56.0) and 24 men (age range 27-71 years, mean 49.8). The range of motion (ROM) of the mandible and UCS was assessed clinically. Osseous changes of the TMJ and UCS were assessed by cone beam computed tomography. Differences were tested and adjusted for age and gender by multiple linear and logistic regression analyses. RESULTS: The mandibular ROM was within normal range (45-64 mm) but the UCS ROM was reduced in 15 patients. Osseous TMJ and UCS changes were both found in 38.5% of the patients. Osseous UCS changes were found more frequently in patients with than without TMJ changes (P = .0003; odds ratio 21.9). No other significant results were found. CONCLUSIONS: The present findings of comorbid osseous changes in patients with obstructive sleep apnea support a possible biomechanical relationship between the TMJ and the UCS.

PET/MR Imaging in Musculoskeletal Disorders.

There is emerging evidence suggesting that PET/MR imaging will have a role in many aspects of musculoskeletal imaging. The synergistic potential of hybrid PET/MR imaging in terms of acquiring anatomic, molecular, and functional data simultaneously seems advantageous in the diagnostic workup, treatment planning and monitoring, and follow-up of patients with musculoskeletal malignancies, and may also prove helpful in assessment of musculoskeletal infectious and inflammatory disorders. The application of more sophisticated MR imaging sequences and PET radiotracers other than FDG in the diagnostic workup and follow-up of patients with musculoskeletal disorders should be explored.

Reliable Gait Recognition Using 3D Reconstructions and Random Forests - An Anthropometric Approach.

Photogrammetric measurements of bodily dimensions and analysis of gait patterns in CCTV are important tools in forensic investigations but accurate extraction of the measurements are challenging. This study tested whether manual annotation of the joint centers on 3D reconstructions could provide reliable recognition. Sixteen participants performed normal walking where 3D reconstructions were obtained continually. Segment lengths and kinematics from the extremities were manually extracted by eight expert observers. The results showed that all the participants were recognized, assuming the same expert annotated the data. Recognition based on data annotated by different experts was less reliable achieving 72.6% correct recognitions as some parameters were heavily affected by interobserver variability. This study verified that 3D reconstructions are feasible for forensic gait analysis as an improved alternative to conventional CCTV. However, further studies are needed to account for the use of different clothing, field conditions, etc.

Profiling and Metabolism of Sterols in the Weaver Ant Genus Oecophylla.

Sterols are essential to insects because they are vital for many biochemical processes, nevertheless insects cannot synthesize sterols but have to acquire them through their diet. Studies of sterols in ants are sparse and here the sterols of the weaver ant genus Oecophylla are identified for the first time. The sterol profile and the dietary sterols provided to a laboratory Oecophylla longinoda colony were analyzed. Most sterols originated from the diet, except one, which was probably formed via dealkylation in the ants and two sterols of fungal origin, which likely originate from hitherto unidentified endosymbionts responsible for supplying these two compounds. The sterol profile of a wild Oecophylla smaragdina colony was also investigated. Remarkable qualitative similarities were established between the two species despite the differences in diet, species, and origin. This may reflect a common sterol need/aversion in the weaver ants. Additionally, each individual caste of both species displayed unique sterol profiles.

Diagnosis of bone metastasis from thyroid carcinoma: a multidisciplinary approach.

Sarcomas are rare tumors originating from soft tissue or bone. Diagnosis and treatment of sarcomas should be performed at specialized sarcoma centers, where patients are evaluated at a multidisciplinary tumor conference. We present a case where sarcoma was suspected from magnetic resonance imaging (MRI), but histology revealed a metastasis from thyroid carcinoma, although the patient had no previous history of thyroid malignancy and resection of the thyroid gland was without malignancy. Ultrasound-guided biopsy was possible due to cortical destruction and the multidisciplinary approach with re-evaluation of previous pathology and a thorough patient history enabled a final diagnosis.

Expanding the test set: Chemicals with potential to disrupt mammalian brain development.

High-throughput test methods including molecular, cellular, and alternative species-based assays that examine critical events of normal brain development are being developed for detection of developmental neurotoxicants. As new assays are developed, a "training set" of chemicals is used to evaluate the relevance of individual assays for specific endpoints. Different training sets are necessary for each assay that would comprise a developmental neurotoxicity test battery. In contrast, evaluation of the predictive ability of a comprehensive test battery requires a set of chemicals that have been shown to alter brain development after in vivo exposure ("test set"). Because only a small number of substances have been well documented to alter human neurodevelopment, we have proposed an expanded test set that includes chemicals demonstrated to adversely affect neurodevelopment in animals. To compile a list of potential developmental neurotoxicants, a literature review of compounds that have been examined for effects on the developing nervous system was conducted. The search was limited to mammalian studies published in the peer-reviewed literature and regulatory studies submitted to the U.S. EPA. The definition of developmental neurotoxicity encompassed changes in behavior, brain morphology, and neurochemistry after gestational or lactational exposure. Reports that indicated developmental neurotoxicity was observed only at doses that resulted in significant maternal toxicity or were lethal to the fetus or offspring were not considered. As a basic indication of reproducibility, we only included a chemical if data on its developmental neurotoxicity were available from more than one laboratory (defined as studies originating from laboratories with a different senior investigator). Evidence from human studies was included when available. Approximately 100 developmental neurotoxicity test set chemicals were identified, with 22% having evidence in humans.

New equations to calculate 3D joint centres in the lower extremities.

Biomechanical movement analysis in 3D requires estimation of joint centres in the lower extremities and this estimation is based on extrapolation from markers placed on anatomical landmarks. The purpose of the present study was to quantify the accuracy of three established set of equations and provide new improved equations to predict the joint centre locations. The 'true' joint centres of the knee and ankle joint were obtained in vivo by MRI scans on 10 male subjects whereas the 'true' hip joint centre was obtained in 10 male and 10 female cadavers by CT scans. For the hip joint the errors ranged from 26.7 (8.9) to 29.6 (7.5) mm, for the knee joint 5.8 (3.1) to 22.6 (3.3) mm and for the ankle joint 14.4 (2.2) to 27.0 (4.6) mm. This differed significantly from the improved equations by which the error for the hip joint ranged from 8.2 (3.6) to 11.6 (5.6) mm, for the knee joint from 2.9 (2.1) to 4.7 (2.5) mm and for the ankle joint from 3.4 (1.3) to 4.1 (2.0) mm. The coefficients in the new hip joint equations differed significantly between sexes. This difference depends on anatomical differences of the male and female pelvis.