DNA nanodevice as a multi-module co-delivery platform for combination cancer immunotherapy.

A major challenge in combining cancer immunotherapy is the efficient delivery of multiple types of immunological stimulators to elicit a robust anti-tumor immune response and reprogram the immunosuppressive tumor microenvironment (TME). Here, we developed a DNA nanodevice that was generated by precisely assembling three types of immunological stimulators. The doxorubicin (Dox) component induced immunogenic cell death (ICD) in tumor cells and enhanced phagocytosis of antigen-presenting cells (APCs). Exogenous double-stranded DNA (dsDNA) could act as a molecular adjuvant to activate the stimulator of interferon genes (STING) signaling in APCs by engulfing dying tumor cells. Interleukin (IL)-12 and small hairpin programmed cell death-ligand 1 (shPD-L1) transcription templates were designed to regulate TME. Additionally, for targeted drug delivery, multiple cyclo[Arg-Gly-Asp-(d-Phe)-Cys] (cRGD) peptide units on DNA origami were employed. The incorporation of disulfide bonds allowed the release of multiple modules in response to intracellular glutathione (GSH) in tumors. The nanodevice promoted the infiltration of CD8+ and CD4+ cells into the tumor and generated a highly inflamed TME, thereby enhancing the effectiveness of cancer immunotherapy. Our research results indicate that the nanodevice we constructed can effectively inhibit tumor growth and prevent lung metastasis without obvious systemic toxicity, providing a promising strategy for cancer combination treatment.

Xanthene-based near-infrared chromophores for high-contrast fluorescence and photoacoustic imaging of dipeptidyl peptidase 4.

Near-infrared (NIR) chromophores with analyte tunable emission and absorption properties are highly desirable for developing activatable fluorescence and photoacoustic (PA) probes for bioimaging and disease diagnosis. Here we engineer a class of new chromophores by extending the π-conjugation system of a xanthene scaffold at position 7 with different electron withdrawing groups. It is demonstrated that these chromophores exhibit pH-dependent transition from a spirocyclic "closed" form to a xanthene "open" form with remarkable changes in spectral properties. We further develop fluorescence and PA probes by caging the NIR xanthene chromophores with a dipeptidyl peptidase 4 (DPPIV) substrate. In vitro and live cell studies show that these probes allow activatable fluorescence and PA detection and imaging of DPPIV activity with high sensitivity, high specificity and fast response. Moreover, these two probes allow high-contrast and highly specific imaging of DPPIV activity in a tumour-bearing mouse model in vivo via systemic administration. This study highlights the potential of a xanthene scaffold as a versatile platform for developing high-contrast fluorescence and PA molecular probes.

Chemically Inducible DNAzyme Sensor for Controllable Imaging of Metal Ions.

RNA-cleaving DNAzymes have emerged as a promising tool for metal ion detection. Achieving spatiotemporal control over their catalytic activity is essential for understanding the role of metal ions in various biological processes. While photochemical and endogenous stimuli-responsive approaches have shown potential for controlled metal ion imaging using DNAzymes, limitations such as photocytotoxicity, poor tissue penetration, or off-target activation have hindered their application for safe and precise detection of metal ions in vivo. We herein report a chemically inducible DNAzyme in which the catalytic core is modified to contain chemical caging groups at the selected backbone sites through systematic screening. This inducible DNAzyme exhibits minimal leakage of catalytic activity and can be reactivated by small molecule selenocysteines, which effectively remove the caging groups and restore the activity of DNAzyme. Benefiting from these findings, we designed a fluorogenic chemically inducible DNAzyme sensor for controlled imaging of metal ions with tunable activity and high selectivity in live cells and in vivo. This chemically inducible DNAzyme design expands the toolbox for controlling DNAzyme activity and can be easily adapted to detect other metal ions in vivo by changing the DNAzyme module, offering opportunities for precise biomedical diagnosis.

Near-infrared fluorogenic imaging of carbon monoxide in live cells using palladium-mediated carbonylation.

Here we develop a near infrared (NIR) fluorogenic probe for carbon monoxide (CO) detection and imaging based on palladium-mediated carbonylation using a NIR boron-dipyrromethene difluoride as a fluorophore and tetraethylene glycols as aqueous moieties. The probe is utilized to image exogenous and endogenous CO under different stimulated conditions in live cells.

In situ monitoring of ROS secretion from single cells with a dual-nanopore biosensor.

We report here a dual-nanopore biosensor based on modulation of surface charge density coupled with a microwell array chip for in situ monitoring of ROS secretion from single MCF-7 cells.

Cell-Specific Degradation of Histone Deacetylase Using Warhead-Caged Proteolysis Targeting Chimeras.

Proteolysis targeting chimeras (PROTACs) have shifted the paradigm for drug development via target protein degradation. However, PROTACs may exhibit systemic toxicity to normal cells due to indiscriminate degradation and the utility of inhibitors as a warhead for protein targeting. Here, we propose a new strategy for developing activatable PROTACs for cell-specific degradation of histone deacetylase (HDAC) with minimal side effects via caging of the warhead. Molecular docking reveals that the hydroxyl group of the HDAC inhibitor is crucial for targeting. An enzyme-activatable PROTAC is designed by caging the hydroxyl group with the substrate for NAD(P)H: quinone oxidoreductase 1 (NQO1) overexpressed in cancer cells. We demonstrate that the caged PROTAC can be converted to its active form in response to NQO1. The enzyme-activatable PROTAC allows the efficient and specific degradation of HDAC6 and exerts antiproliferative activity in NQO1-positive cells. The generalizability of the design is further demonstrated by engineering a H2O2-responsive PROTAC for specific degradation of HDAC6 in cells with elevated H2O2. The strategy of caging the ligand for target proteins would afford a new dimension for developing activatable PROTACs with high specificity and minimal side effects.

Targeted Protein Degradation Mediated by Genetically Engineered Lysosome-Targeting Exosomes.

Protein-degrading chimeras are superior drug modalities compared to traditional protein inhibitors because of their effective therapeutic performance. So far, various targeted protein degradation strategies, including proteolysis-targeting chimeras and lysosome-targeting chimeras, have emerged as essential technologies for tackling diseases caused by abnormal protein expression. Here, we report the development and application of lysosome-targeting exosomes (LYTEXs) for the selective degradation of membrane protein targets. LYTEXs are genetically engineered exosomes expressing multivalent single-chain fragment variables, simultaneously recognizing cell-surface lysosome-targeting and to-be-degraded protein. We show that by targeting the lysosome-directing asialoglycoprotein receptor, bispecific LYTEXs can induce lysosomal degradation of membrane-associated therapeutic targets. This strategy provides a generalizable, easy-to-prepare platform for modulating surface protein expression, with the advantage of therapeutic delivery.

Genetically Encoded RNA Sensors for Ratiometric and Multiplexed Imaging of Small Molecules in Living Cells.

Genetically encoded sensors afford powerful tools for studying small molecules and metabolites in live cells. However, genetically encoded sensors with a general design remain to be developed. Here we develop genetically encoded RNA sensors with a modular design for ratiometric and multiplexed imaging of small molecules in live cells. The sensor utilizes aptazyme as a recognition module and the light-up RNA aptamer as a signal reporter. The conformation of light-up aptamers is abrogated by a blocking sequence, and aptazyme-mediated cleavage restores the correct conformation, delivering activated fluorescence for small molecule imaging. We first developed a genetically encoded ratiometric sensor using Mango aptamer as a reference and SRB2 as a reporter. It is shown that the sensor allows quantitative imaging and detection of theophylline in live cells. The generality of the design is further demonstrated for imaging other small molecules by replacing the aptazymes. Its ability for multiplexed imaging of small molecules is further explored via the integration of different small-molecule responsive aptazymes and light-up RNA aptamers. This modular design could offer a versatile platform for imaging diverse molecules in living cells.

Site-Specific Bioorthogonal Activation of DNAzymes for On-Demand Gene Therapy.

RNA-cleaving DNAzymes hold great promise as gene silencers, and spatiotemporal control of their activity through site-specific reactions is crucial but challenging for on-demand therapy. We herein report a novel design of a bioorthogonally inducible DNAzyme that is deactivated by site-specific installation of bioorthogonal caging groups on the designated backbone sites but restores the activity via a phosphine-triggered Staudinger reduction. We perform a systematical screening for installing the caging groups on each backbone site in the catalytic core of 10-23 DNAzyme and identify an inducible DNAzyme with very low leakage activity. This design is demonstrated to achieve bioorthogonally controlled cleavage of exogenous and endogenous mRNA in live cells. It is further extended to photoactivation and endogenous stimuli activation for spatiotemporal or targeted control of gene silencing. The bioorthogonally inducible DNAzyme is applied to a triple-negative breast cancer mouse model using a lipid nanoparticle delivery system, demonstrating high efficiency in knockdown of Lcn2 oncogenes and substantial suppression of tumor growth, thus highlighting the potential of precisely controlling the DNAzyme functions for on-demand gene therapy.

Selective Proteolysis of Activated Transcriptional Factor by NIR-Responsive Palindromic DNA Thalidomide Conjugate Inhibits the Canonical Smad Pathway.

Dysfunctional transcription factors that activate abnormal expressions of specific proteins are often associated with the progression of various diseases. Despite being attractive drug targets, the lack of druggable sites has dramatically hindered their drug development. The emergence of proteolysis targeting chimeras (PROTACs) has revitalized the drug development of many conventional hard-to-drug protein targets. Here, the use of a palindromic double-strand DNA thalidomide conjugate (PASTE) to selectively bind and induce proteolysis of targeted activated transcription factor (PROTAF) is reported. The selective proteolysis of the dimerized phosphorylated receptor-regulated Smad2/3 and inhibition of the canonical Smad pathway validates PASTE-mediated PROTAF. Further aptamer-guided active delivery of PASTE and near-infrared light-triggered PROTAF are demonstrated. Great potential in using PASTE for the selective degradation of the activated transcription factor is seen, providing a powerful tool for studying signaling pathways and developing precision medicines.

In Situ Transformable Pro-nanotheranostic Platform for Activable Photoacoustic Imaging and Synergistic Photothermal/Chemodynamic Cancer Therapy.

Nanotheranostic platforms integrated with diagnostic and therapeutic functions have been widely developed for tumor medicine. However, the "always-on" nanotheranostic platforms suffer from poor tumor specificity, which may largely restrict therapeutic efficacy and prevent precise theranostics. Here, we develop an in situ transformable pro-nanotheranostic platform (ZnS/Cu2O@ZIF-8@PVP) by encapsulating ZnS and Cu2O nanoparticles in a metal-organic framework (MOF) nanomaterial of ZIF-8 that allows activable photoacoustic (PA) imaging and synergistic photothermal/chemodynamic therapy (PTT/CDT) of tumors in vivo. It is shown that the pro-nanotheranostic platform gradually decomposes and releases ZnS nanoparticles and Cu+ ions in acidic conditions, which spontaneously trigger a cation exchange reaction and synthesize Cu2S nanodots in situ with activated PA signals and PTT effects. Moreover, the excessive Cu+ ions function as Fenton-like catalysts and catalyze the production of highly reactive hydroxyl radicals (•OH) for CDT using elevated levels of H2O2 in tumor microenvironments (TMEs). In vivo studies demonstrate that the in situ transformable pro-nanotheranostic platform can specifically image tumors via PA and photothermal imaging and efficiently ablate tumors through synergistic CDT/PTT. Our in situ transformable pro-nanotheranostic platform could provide a new arsenal for precise theranostics in cancer therapy.

Enzyme Regulating the Wettability of the Outer Surface of Nanochannels.

Functional probes not only at the inner wall but also at the outer surface of nanochannel systems could be used for the recognition and detection of biotargets. Despite the advancements, the current detection mechanisms are still mainly based on the surface charge variation. We proposed a strategy of using the variation of wettability on the outer surface of nanochannels for detecting a tumor marker, herein, exemplifying matrix metalloproteinase-2 (MMP-2). The outer surface of the nanochannels were modified with amphipathic peptide probe consisting of hydrophilic unit (CRRRR), MMP-2 cleavage unit (PLGLAG), and hydrophobic unit (Fn). After recognition of MMP-2, due to the release of hydrophobic unit, the hydrophilicity of the outer surface was expected to increase, thus leading to the increase of ion current. Furthermore, the number (n) of phenylalanine (F) in the hydrophobic unit was modulated from 2, 4, to 6. By lengthening the hydrophobic unit, the limit of detection for MMP-2 detection could reach 1 ng/mL (when n = 6) and improve by 50-fold (to n = 2). This nanochannel system was utilized to successfully detect the MMP-2 secreted from cells and demonstrated that the expression of MMP-2 was related to the cell cycle and exhibited the highest level in G1/S phase. This study proved that in addition to the surface charge, wettability regulation could also be utilized as a variation factor to broaden the design strategy of a probe on OS to achieve the detection of biotargets.

Reversible Acylation of RNA Enables Activatable Biosensing.

There is a high demand to develop chemical tools to control the property and function of RNA. Current methods mainly rely on ultraviolet light-based caging strategies, which may cause phototoxicity in live cell-based experiments. We herein report an endogenous stimulus-responsive RNA acylation approach by introducing boronate ester (BE) groups to 2'-hydroxyls through postsynthetic modification. Treatment with hydrogen peroxide (H2O2) yields a phenol derivative which undergoes a 1,6-eliminaton for the traceless release of 2'-hydroxyl. We demonstrated that the acylation of crRNA enabled conditional regulation of CRISPR/Cas13a activity for activatable detection of target RNA. We also showed that the highly specific acylation of the single RNA in 8-17 DNAzyme allowed reversible control of the catalytic activity of DNAzyme, which was further applied to the cell-selective imaging of metal ions in cancer cells. Thus, our strategy provides a simple, general, and cell-selective method to control RNA activity, affording great potential in the construction of activatable RNA sensors and pre-RNA medicines.

Type I Photosensitizer Targeting G-Quadruplex RNA Elicits Augmented Immunity for Cancer Ablation.

Type I photodynamic therapy (PDT) represents a promising treatment modality for tumors with intrinsic hypoxia. However, type I photosensitizers (PSs), especially ones with near infrared (NIR) absorption, are limited and their efficacy needs improvement via new targeting tactics. We develop a NIR type I PS by engineering acridinium derived donor-π-acceptor systems. The PS exhibits an exclusive type I PDT mechanism due to effective intersystem crossing and disfavored energy transfer to O2 , and shows selective binding to G-quadruplexes (G4s) via hydrogen bonds identified by a molecular docking study. Moreover, it enables fluorogenic detection of G4s and efficient O2 ⋅- production in hypoxic conditions, leading to immunogenic cell death and substantial variations of gene expression in RNA sequencing. Our strategy demonstrates augmented antitumor immunity for effective ablation of immunogenic cold tumor, highlighting its potential of RNA-targeted type I PDT in precision cancer therapy.

Membrane-tethered activation design of a photosensitizer boosts systemic antitumor immunity via pyroptosis.

Pyroptotic immunogenic cell death presents an emerging targeting pathway for cancer immunotherapy. We report a novel membrane-tethered activation design of a photosensitizer (PS) that boosts systemic anti-tumor immunity to primary and distant tumors via pyroptosis induction. The membrane-tethered PS is designed by installing a new phenylbenzopyrylium PS with zwitterionic lipid anchors and a target-cleavable caging moiety. This design affords excellent membrane tethering and enzymatic activation of the PS, exerting specific phototoxicity to cancer cells and inducing effective pyroptosis. Our design demonstrates prolonged circulation, long-lasting fluorogenic imaging and persistent photodynamic therapy of immunogenic 'cold' tumors in vivo, eliciting potent immunity toward local and abscopal tumors via promoted maturation of dendritic cells and recruitment of cytotoxic T lymphocytes. This design affords a promising approach for enhancing systemic antitumor immunity for cancer immunotherapy.

Protein-Scaffolded DNA Nanostructures for Imaging of Apurinic/Apyrimidinic Endonuclease 1 Activity in Live Cells.

Nucleic acids are valuable tools for intracellular biomarker detection and gene regulation. Here we propose a new type of protein (avidin)-scaffolded DNA nanostructure (ADN) for imaging the activity of apurinic/apyrimidinic endonuclease 1 (APE1) in live cells. ADN is designed by assembling an avidin-displayed abasic site containing DNA strands labeled with a fluorophore or a quencher via a complementary linker strand. ADN is nonemissive due to the close proximity of fluorophores and quenchers. APE1-mediated cleavage separates the fluorophores from the quenchers, delivering activated fluorescence. In vitro assays show that ADN is responsive to APE1 with high sensitivity and high specificity. ADN can efficiently enter the cells, and its capability to visualize and detect intracellular APE1 activities is demonstrated in drug-treated cells and different cell lines. The modular and easy preparation of our nanostructures would afford a valuable platform for imaging and detecting APE1 activities in live cells.

Genetically encodable tagging and sensing systems for fluorescent RNA imaging.

Live cell imaging of RNAs is crucial to interrogate their fundamental roles in various biological processes. The highly spatiotemporal dynamic nature of RNA abundance and localization has presented great challenges for RNA imaging. Genetically encodable tagging and sensing (GETS) systems that can be continuously produced in living systems have afforded promising tools for imaging and sensing RNA dynamics in live cells. Here we review the recent advances of GETS systems that have been developed for RNA tagging and sensing in live cells. We first describe the various GETS systems using MS2-bacteriophage-MS2 coat protein, pumilio homology domain and clustered regularly interspaced short palindromic repeats (CRISPR)-Cas9/13 for RNA labeling and tracking. The progresses of GETS systems for fluorogenic labeling and/or sensing RNAs by engineering light-up RNA aptamers, CRISPR-Cas9 systems and RNA aptamer stabilized fluorogenic proteins are then elaborated. The challenges and future perspectives in this field are finally discussed. With the continuing development, GETS systems will afford powerful tools to elucidate RNA biology in living systems.

Proximity-driven bioorthogonal reactions via DNA circuits enable the accurate aptasensing of non-nucleic acid targets.

Tetrazine-mediated bioorthogonal reactions were rationally coupled with DNA cascade circuits to enable proximal decaging, which allowed the construction of a fluorogenic aptasensor for the accurate and amplified sensing of non-nucleic acid targets in live cells.

Development of Dual-Nanopore Biosensors for Detection of Intracellular Dopamine and Dopamine Efflux from Single PC12 Cell.

Detection of neurotransmitters at the single-cell level is essential for understanding the related biological processes and neurodegenerative diseases. We report a dual-nanopore biosensor utilizing a DNA aptamer probe to specifically interact with dopamine, enabling detection of intracellular dopamine and dopamine efflux (extracellular dopamine) in a single pheochromocytoma (PC12) cell. We demonstrate the ability to form an intrapipette electric circuit with the dual-nanopore configuration, which is crucial to achieving both intracellular and extracellular dopamine detection. The sensor allowed rapid detection of dopamine in 10 min with a limit of detection of 0.4 nM. We show the dual-nanopore biosensor was able to monitor single-cell dopamine concentration change under different stimulations. The developed dual-nanopore biosensor represents a novel strategy for time-dependent monitoring of neuron behavior at the single-cell level and potentially can be extended to other platforms for single-cell analysis.

Ultrathin Zinc Selenide Nanoplatelets Boosting Photoacoustic Imaging of In Situ Copper Exchange in Alzheimer's Disease Mice.

The critical role of transition metal dyshomeostasis in Alzheimer's disease (AD) pathology poses demands of in vivo imaging for brain copper levels. Nanostructured probes afford prolonged retention time, increased accumulation, and enhanced photostability; however, their development for activatable photoacoustic (PA) imaging remains largely unexplored. We develop a principle of concept for activable PA imaging using in situ cation exchange of ultrathin zinc selenide (ZnSe) nanoplatelets for monitoring brain copper levels in AD mice. We start from quantitative modeling of optical absorption, time-resolved temperature field, and thermal expansion of copper selenide (CuSe) nanocrystals of different morphologies and reveal that ultrathin nanoplatelets afford substantial enhancement of near-infrared (NIR) absorption and PA pressures as compared to nanodots and nanoparticles. By tethering with a blood-brain barrier (BBB)-targeting peptide ligand, the ultrathin ZnSe nanoplatelet probe efficiently transports across the BBB and rapidly exchanges with endogenous copper ions, boosting activatable PA imaging of brain copper levels. We also demonstrate that the efficient exchange of ZnSe nanoplatelets with copper ions can reduce oxidative stress of neurons and protect neuronal cells from apoptosis. The nanoplatelet probe provides a paradigm for activatable PA imaging of brain copper levels, highlighting its potential for pathophysiologic study of AD.