Correction: Avalos-de León et al. The Effect of Fibroblast Growth Factor 15 Signaling in Non-Steatotic and Steatotic Liver Transplantation from Cardiocirculatory Death. Cells 2019, 8, 1640.

In the original publication [...].

Data on Adiponectin from 2010 to 2020: Therapeutic Target and Prognostic Factor for Liver Diseases?

The review describes the role of adiponectin in liver diseases in the presence and absence of surgery reported in the literature in the last ten years. The most updated therapeutic strategies based on the regulation of adiponectin including pharmacological and surgical interventions and adiponectin knockout rodents, as well as some of the scientific controversies in this field, are described. Whether adiponectin could be a potential therapeutic target for the treatment of liver diseases and patients submitted to hepatic resection or liver transplantation are discussed. Furthermore, preclinical and clinical data on the mechanism of action of adiponectin in different liver diseases (nonalcoholic fatty disease, alcoholic liver disease, nonalcoholic steatohepatitis, liver cirrhosis and hepatocellular carcinoma) in the absence or presence of surgery are evaluated in order to establish potential targets that might be useful for the treatment of liver disease as well as in the practice of liver surgery associated with the hepatic resections of tumors and liver transplantation.

FGF15 improves outcomes after brain dead donor liver transplantation with steatotic and non-steatotic grafts in rats.

BACKGROUND & AIMS: Donation after brain death (DBD) grafts are associated with reduced graft quality and function post liver transplantation (LT). We aimed to elucidate i) the impact of FGF15 levels on DBD grafts; ii) whether this impact resulted from altered intestinal FXR-FGF15; iii) whether administration of FGF15 to donors after brain death could confer a benefit on graft function post LT; and iv) whether FGF15 affects bile acid (BA) accumulation. METHODS: Steatotic and non-steatotic grafts from DBD donors and donors without brain death were transplanted in rats. FGF15 was administered alone or combined with either a BA (cholic acid) or a YAP inhibitor. RESULTS: Brain death induced intestinal damage and downregulation of FXR. The resulting reduced intestinal FGF15 was associated with low hepatic FGF15 levels, liver damage and regenerative failure. Hepatic FGFR4-Klb - the receptor for FGF15 - was downregulated whereas CYP7A1 was overexpressed, resulting in BA accumulation. FGF15 administration to DBD donors increased hepatic FGFR4-Klb, reduced CYP7A1 and normalized BA levels. The benefit of FGF15 on liver damage was reversed by cholic acid, whereas its positive effect on regeneration was maintained. YAP signaling in DBD donors was activated after FGF15 treatment. When a YAP inhibitor was administered, the benefits of FGF15 on regeneration were abolished, whereas its positive effect on hepatic damage remained. Neither the Hippo-YAP-BA nor the BA-IQGAP1-YAP axis was involved in the benefits of FGF15. CONCLUSION: Alterations in the gut-liver axis contribute to the reduced quality of DBD grafts and the associated pathophysiology of LT. FGF15 pre-treatment in DBD donors protected against damage and promoted cell proliferation. LAY SUMMARY: After brain death, potential liver donors have reduced intestinal FXR, which is associated with reduced intestinal, circulatory and hepatic levels of FGF15. A similar reduction in the cell-surface receptor complex Fgfr4/Klb is observed, whereas CYP7A1 is overexpressed; together, these molecular events result in the dangerous accumulation of bile acids, leading to damage and regenerative failure in brain dead donor grafts. Herein, we demonstrate that when such donors receive appropriate doses of FGF15, CYP7A1 levels and hepatic bile acid toxicity are reduced, and liver regeneration is promoted.

Current Knowledge about the Effect of Nutritional Status, Supplemented Nutrition Diet, and Gut Microbiota on Hepatic Ischemia-Reperfusion and Regeneration in Liver Surgery.

Ischemia-reperfusion (I/R) injury is an unresolved problem in liver resection and transplantation. The preexisting nutritional status related to the gut microbial profile might contribute to primary non-function after surgery. Clinical studies evaluating artificial nutrition in liver resection are limited. The optimal nutritional regimen to support regeneration has not yet been exactly defined. However, overnutrition and specific diet factors are crucial for the nonalcoholic or nonalcoholic steatohepatitis liver diseases. Gut-derived microbial products and the activation of innate immunity system and inflammatory response, leading to exacerbation of I/R injury or impaired regeneration after resection. This review summarizes the role of starvation, supplemented nutrition diet, nutritional status, and alterations in microbiota on hepatic I/R and regeneration. We discuss the most updated effects of nutritional interventions, their ability to alter microbiota, some of the controversies, and the suitability of these interventions as potential therapeutic strategies in hepatic resection and transplantation, overall highlighting the relevance of considering the extended criteria liver grafts in the translational liver surgery.

The Role of GLP1 in Rat Steatotic and Non-Steatotic Liver Transplantation from Cardiocirculatory Death Donors.

In liver transplantation (LT), organ shortage has led to the use of steatotic and non-steatotic grafts from donors after cardiocirculatory death (DCD). However, these grafts, especially those with steatosis, exhibit poor post-operative outcomes. To address this problem, we investigated the roles of gut-derived glucagon-like peptide 1 (GLP1) and dipeptidyl peptidase 4 (DPP4), the serine protease that cleaves it, in steatotic and non-steatotic LT from DCDs. Using Zucker rats, liver grafts from DCDs were cold stored and transplanted to recipients. GLP1 was administered to donors. The levels of GLP1 in intestine and of both GLP1 and DDP4 in circulation were unaltered following cardiocirculatory death (CD). In steatotic livers from DCD, increased GLP1 and decreased DPP4 were recorded, and administration of GLP1 caused a rise in hepatic GLP1 and a reduction in DDP4. This protected against inflammation, damage, and proliferation failure. Conversely, low GLP1 and high DDP4 were observed in non-steatotic livers from DCD. The exogenous GLP1 did not modify hepatic DDP4, and the accumulated GLP1 exerted harmful effects, increasing damage, inflammation, and regeneration failure. Herein, we show that there are differences in GLP1/DDP4 regulation depending on the type of liver implanted, suggesting that GLP1 can be used as a novel and effective therapy in steatotic grafts from DCDs but that it is not appropriate for non-steatotic DCDs.

The Effect of Fibroblast Growth Factor 15 Signaling in Non-Steatotic and Steatotic Liver Transplantation from Cardiocirculatory Death.

We elucidate the relevance of fibroblast growth factor 15 (FGF15) in liver transplantation (LT) using rats with both steatotic and non-steatotic organs from donors after cardiocirculatory death (DCD). Compared to LT from non-DCDs, the induction of cardiocirculatory death (CD) increases hepatic damage, proliferation, and intestinal and circulatory FGF15. This is associated with high levels of FGF15, bilirubin and bile acids (BAs), and overexpression of the enzyme involved in the alternative BA synthesis pathway, CYP27A1, in non-steatotic livers. Furthermore, CD activates the proliferative pathway, Hippo/YAP, in these types of liver. Blocking FGF15 action in LT from DCDs does not affect CYP27A1 but causes an overexpression of CYP7A, an enzyme from the classic BA synthesis pathway, and this is related to further accumulation of BAs and exacerbated damage. FGF15 inhibition also impairs proliferation without changing Hippo/YAP. In spite of worse damage, steatosis prevents a proliferative response in livers from DCDs. In steatotic grafts, CD does not modify CYP7A1, CYP27A1, BA, or the Hippo/YAP pathway, and FGF15 is not involved in damage or proliferation. Thus, endogenous FGF15 protects against BA accumulation and damage and promotes regeneration independently of the Hippo/YAP pathway, in non-steatotic LT from DCDs. Herein we show a minor role of FGF15 in steatotic LT from DCDs.

Inflammasome-Mediated Inflammation in Liver Ischemia-Reperfusion Injury.

Ischemia-reperfusion injury is an important cause of liver damage occurring during surgical procedures including hepatic resection and liver transplantation, and represents the main underlying cause of graft dysfunction and liver failure post-transplantation. To date, ischemia-reperfusion injury is an unsolved problem in clinical practice. In this context, inflammasome activation, recently described during ischemia-reperfusion injury, might be a potential therapeutic target to mitigate the clinical problems associated with liver transplantation and hepatic resections. The present review aims to summarize the current knowledge in inflammasome-mediated inflammation, describing the experimental models used to understand the molecular mechanisms of inflammasome in liver ischemia-reperfusion injury. In addition, a clear distinction between steatotic and non-steatotic livers and between warm and cold ischemia-reperfusion injury will be discussed. Finally, the most updated therapeutic strategies, as well as some of the scientific controversies in the field will be described. Such information may be useful to guide the design of better experimental models, as well as the effective therapeutic strategies in liver surgery and transplantation that can succeed in achieving its clinical application.

New Insights into the Liver-Visceral Adipose Axis During Hepatic Resection and Liver Transplantation.

In the last decade, adipose tissue has emerged as an endocrine organ with a key role in energy homeostasis. In addition, there is close crosstalk between the adipose tissue and the liver, since pro- and anti-inflammatory substances produced at the visceral adipose tissue level directly target the liver through the portal vein. During surgical procedures, including hepatic resection and liver transplantation, ischemia-reperfusion injury induces damage and regenerative failure. It has been suggested that adipose tissue is associated with both pathological or, on the contrary, with protective effects on damage and regenerative response after liver surgery. The present review aims to summarize the current knowledge on the crosstalk between the adipose tissue and the liver during liver surgery. Therapeutic strategies as well as the clinical and scientific controversies in this field are discussed. The different experimental models, such as lipectomy, to evaluate the role of adipose tissue in both steatotic and nonsteatotic livers undergoing surgery, are described. Such information may be useful for the establishment of protective strategies aimed at regulating the liver-visceral adipose tissue axis and improving the postoperative outcomes in clinical liver surgery.

EGF-GH Axis in Rat Steatotic and Non-steatotic Liver Transplantation From Brain-dead Donors.

BACKGROUND: We evaluated the potential dysfunction caused by changes in growth hormone (GH) levels after brain death (BD), and the effects of modulating GH through exogenous epidermal growth factor (EGF) in steatotic and nonsteatotic grafts. METHODS: Steatotic and nonsteatotic grafts from non-BD and BD rat donors were cold stored for 6 hours and transplanted to live rats. Administration of GH and EGF and their underlying mechanisms were characterized in recipients of steatotic and nonsteatotic grafts from BD donors maintained normotensive during the 6 hours before donation. Circulating and hepatic GH and EGF levels, hepatic damage, and regeneration parameters were evaluated. Recipient survival was monitored for 14 days. Somatostatin, ghrelin, and GH-releasing hormones that regulate GH secretion from the anterior pituitary were determined. The survival signaling pathway phosphoinositide-3-kinase/protein kinase B that regulates inflammation (suppressors of cytokine signaling, high-mobility group protein B1, oxidative stress, and neutrophil accumulation) was evaluated. RESULTS: BD reduced circulating GH and increased GH levels only in steatotic livers. GH administration exacerbated adverse BD-associated effects in both types of graft. Exogenous EGF reduced GH in steatotic livers, thus activating cell proliferation and survival signaling pathways, ultimately reducing injury and inflammation. However, EGF increased GH in nonsteatotic grafts, which exacerbated damage. The benefits of EGF for steatotic grafts were associated with increased levels of somatostatin, a GH inhibitor, whereas the deleterious effect on nonsteatotic grafts was exerted through increased amounts of ghrelin, a GH stimulator. CONCLUSIONS: GH treatment is not appropriate in rat liver transplant from BD donors, whereas EGF (throughout GH inhibition) protects only in steatotic grafts.

Relevance of VEGFA in rat livers subjected to partial hepatectomy under ischemia-reperfusion.

We examined the effects of VEGFA on damage and regeneration in steatotic and non-steatotic livers of rats submitted to PH under I/R, and characterized the underlying mechanisms involved. Our results indicated that VEGFA levels were decreased in both steatotic and non-steatotic livers after surgery. The administration of VEGFA increased VEGFA levels in non-steatotic livers, reducing the incidence of post-operative complications following surgery through the VEGFR2-Wnt2 pathway, independently of Id1. Unexpectedly, administration of VEGFA notably reduced VEGFA levels in steatotic livers, exacerbating damage and regenerative failure. After exogenous administration of VEGFA in steatotic animals, circulating VEGFA is sequestered by the high circulating levels of sFlt1 released from adipose tissue. Under such conditions, VEGFA cannot reach the steatotic liver to exert its effects. Consequently, the concomitant administration of VEGFA and an antibody against sFlt1 was required to avoid binding of sFlt1 to VEGFA. This was associated with high VEGFA levels in steatotic livers and protection against damage and regenerative failure, plus improvement in the survival rate via up-regulation of PI3K/Akt independently of the Id1-Wnt2 pathway. The current study highlights the different effects and signaling pathways of VEGFA in liver surgery requiring PH and I/R based in the presence of steatosis. KEY MESSAGES: VEGFA administration improves PH+I/R injury only in non-steatotic livers of Ln animals. VEGFA benefits are exerted through the VEGFR2-Wnt2 pathway in non-steatotic livers. In Ob rats, exogenous VEGFA is sequestered by circulating sFlt1, exacerbating liver damage. Therapeutic combination of VEGFA and anti-sFlt1 is required to protect steatotic livers. VEGFA+anti-sFlt1 treatment protects steatotic livers through a VEGFR2-PI3K/Akt pathway.

Mitogen Activated Protein Kinases in Steatotic and Non-Steatotic Livers Submitted to Ischemia-Reperfusion.

: We analyzed the participation of mitogen-activated protein kinases (MAPKs), namely p38, JNK and ERK 1/2 in steatotic and non-steatotic livers undergoing ischemia-reperfusion (I-R), an unresolved problem in clinical practice. Hepatic steatosis is a major risk factor in liver surgery because these types of liver tolerate poorly to I-R injury. Also, a further increase in the prevalence of steatosis in liver surgery is to be expected. The possible therapies based on MAPK regulation aimed at reducing hepatic I-R injury will be discussed. Moreover, we reviewed the relevance of MAPK in ischemic preconditioning (PC) and evaluated whether MAPK regulators could mimic its benefits. Clinical studies indicated that this surgical strategy could be appropriate for liver surgery in both steatotic and non-steatotic livers undergoing I-R. The data presented herein suggest that further investigations are required to elucidate more extensively the mechanisms by which these kinases work in hepatic I-R. Also, further researchers based in the development of drugs that regulate MAPKs selectively are required before such approaches can be translated into clinical liver surgery.

Use of Steatotic Grafts in Liver Transplantation: Current Status.

In the field of liver transplantation, the demand for adequate allografts greatly exceeds the supply. Therefore, expanding the donor pool to match the growing demand is mandatory. The present review summarizes current knowledge of the pathophysiology of ischemia/reperfusion injury in steatotic grafts, together with recent pharmacological approaches aimed at maximizing the utilization of these livers for transplantation. We also describe the preclinical models currently available to understand the molecular mechanisms controlling graft viability in this specific type of donor, critically discussing the heterogeneity in animal models, surgical methodology, and therapeutic interventions. This lack of common approaches and interventions makes it difficult to establish the pathways involved and the relevance of isolated discoveries, as well as their transferability to clinical practice. Finally, we discuss how new therapeutic strategies developed from experimental studies are promising but that further studies are warranted to translate them to the bedside.

Adipocytokines in Steatotic Liver Surgery/Transplantation.

Because of the shortage of liver grafts available for transplantation, the restrictions on graft quality have been relaxed, and marginal grafts, such as steatotic livers, are now accepted. However, this policy change has not solved the problem, because steatotic liver grafts tolerate ischemia-reperfusion (I/R) injury poorly. Adipocytokines differentially modulate steatosis, inflammation, and fibrosis and are broadly present in hepatic resections and transplants. The potential use of adipocytokines as biomarkers of the severity of steatosis and liver damage to aid the identification of high-risk steatotic liver donors and to evaluate hepatic injury in the postoperative period are discussed. The hope of finding new therapeutic strategies aimed specifically at protecting steatotic livers undergoing surgery is a strong impetus for identifying the mechanisms responsible for hepatic failure after major surgical intervention. Hence, the most recently described roles of adipocytokines in steatotic livers subject to I/R injury are discussed, the conflicting results in the literature are summarized, and reasons are offered as to why strategic pharmacologic control of adipocytokines has yet to yield clinical benefits. After this, the next steps needed to transfer basic knowledge about adipocytokines into clinical practice to protect marginal livers subject to I/R injury are presented. Recent strategies based on adipocytokine regulation, which have shown efficacy in various pathologies, and hold promise for hepatic resection and transplantation are also outlined.

The impact of cortisol in steatotic and non-steatotic liver surgery.

The intent of this study was to examine the effects of regulating cortisol levels on damage and regeneration in livers with and without steatosis subjected to partial hepatectomy under ischaemia-reperfusion. Ultimately, we found that lean animals undergoing liver resection displayed no changes in cortisol, whereas cortisol levels in plasma, liver and adipose tissue were elevated in obese animals undergoing such surgery. Such elevations were attributed to enzymatic upregulation, ensuring cortisol production, and downregulation of enzymes controlling cortisol clearance. In the absence of steatosis, exogenous cortisol administration boosted circulating cortisol, while inducing clearance of hepatic cortisol, thus maintaining low cortisol levels and preventing related hepatocellular harm. In the presence of steatosis, cortisol administration was marked by a substantial rise in intrahepatic availability, thereby exacerbating tissue damage and regenerative failure. The injurious effects of cortisol were linked to high hepatic acethylcholine levels. Upon administering an α7 nicotinic acethylcholine receptor antagonist, no changes in terms of tissue damage or regenerative lapse were apparent in steatotic livers. However, exposure to an M3 muscarinic acetylcholine receptor antagonist protected livers against damage, enhancing parenchymal regeneration and survival rate. These outcomes for the first time provide new mechanistic insight into surgically altered steatotic livers, underscoring the compelling therapeutic potential of cortisol-acetylcholine-M3 muscarinic receptors.

The effect of cortisol in rat steatotic and non-steatotic liver transplantation from brain-dead donors.

In the present study, we examined the effects of cortisol on steatotic and non-steatotic liver grafts from brain-dead donors and characterized the underlying mechanisms involved. Non-steatotic liver grafts showed reduced cortisol and increased cortisone levels in association with up-regulation of enzymes that inactivate cortisol. Conversely, steatotic liver grafts exhibited increased cortisol and reduced cortisone levels. The enzymes involved in cortisol generation were overexpressed, and those involved in cortisol inactivation or clearance were down-regulated in steatotic liver grafts. Exogenous administration of cortisol negatively affected hepatic damage and survival rate in non-steatotic liver transplantation (LT); however, cortisol treatment up-regulated the phosphoinositide 3-kinase (PI3K)-protein kinase C (PKC) pathway, resulting in protection against the deleterious effects of brain-dead donors on damage and inflammatory response in steatotic LT as well as in increased survival of recipients. The present study highlights the differences in the role of cortisol and hepatic mechanisms that regulate cortisol levels based on the type of liver. Our findings suggest that cortisol treatment is a feasible and highly protective strategy to reduce the adverse effects of brain-dead donor livers in order to ultimately improve liver graft quality in the presence of steatosis, whereas cortisol treatment would not be recommended for non-steatotic liver grafts.

The effect of brain death in rat steatotic and non-steatotic liver transplantation with previous ischemic preconditioning.

BACKGROUND & AIMS: Most liver grafts undergoing transplantation derive from brain dead donors, which may also show hepatic steatosis, being both characteristic risk factors in liver transplantation. Ischemic preconditioning shows benefits when applied in non-brain dead clinical situations like hepatectomies, whereas it has been less promising in the transplantation from brain dead patients. This study examined how brain death affects preconditioned steatotic and non-steatotic liver grafts undergoing transplantation. METHODS: Steatotic and non-steatotic grafts from non-brain dead and brain dead-donors were cold stored for 6h and then transplanted. After 2, 4, and 16 h of reperfusion, hepatic damage was analysed. In addition, two therapeutic strategies, ischemic preconditioning and/or acetylcholine pre-treatment, and their underlying mechanisms were characterized. RESULTS: Preconditioning benefits in non-brain dead donors were associated with nitric oxide and acetylcholine generation. In brain dead donors, preconditioning generated nitric oxide but did not promote acetylcholine upregulation, and this resulted in inflammation and damage. Acetylcholine treatment in brain dead donors, through PKC, increased antioxidants and reduced lipid peroxidation, nitrotyrosines and neutrophil accumulation, altogether protecting against damage. The combination of acetylcholine and preconditioning conferred stronger protection against damage, oxidative stress and neutrophil accumulation than acetylcholine treatment alone. These superior beneficial effects were due to a selective preconditioning-mediated generation of nitric oxide and regulation of PPAR and TLR4 pathways, which were not observed when acetylcholine was administered alone. CONCLUSIONS: Our findings propose the combination of acetylcholine+preconditioning as a feasible and highly protective strategy to reduce the adverse effects of brain death and to ultimately improve liver graft quality.

The effects of glucose and lipids in steatotic and non-steatotic livers in conditions of partial hepatectomy under ischaemia-reperfusion.

BACKGROUND: Steatosis is a risk factor in partial hepatectomy (PH) under ischaemia-reperfusion (I/R), which is commonly applied in clinical practice to reduce bleeding. Nutritional support strategies, as well as the role of peripheral adipose tissue as energy source for liver regeneration, remain poorly investigated. AIMS: To investigate whether the administration of either glucose or a lipid emulsion could protect steatotic and non-steatotic livers against damage and regenerative failure in an experimental model of PH under I/R. The relevance of peripheral adipose tissue in liver regeneration following surgery is studied. METHODS: Steatotic and non-steatotic rat livers were subjected to surgery and the effects of either glucose or lipid treatment on damage and regeneration, and part of the underlying mechanisms, were investigated. RESULTS: In non-steatotic livers, treatment with lipids or glucose provided the same protection against damage, regeneration failure and ATP drop. Adipose tissue was not required to regenerate non-steatotic livers. In the presence of hepatic steatosis, lipid treatment, but not glucose, protected against damage and regenerative failure by induction of cell cycle, maintenance of ATP levels and elevation of sphingosine-1-phosphate/ceramide ratio and phospholipid levels. Peripheral adipose tissue was required for regenerating the steatotic liver but it was not used as an energy source. CONCLUSION: Lipid treatment in non-steatotic livers provides the same protection as that afforded by glucose in conditions of PH under I/R, whereas the treatment with lipids is preferable to reduce the injurious effects of liver surgery in the presence of steatosis.

Resistin and visfatin in steatotic and non-steatotic livers in the setting of partial hepatectomy under ischemia-reperfusion.

BACKGROUND & AIMS: This study examined whether the regulation of resistin and visfatin could reduce damage and improve regeneration in both steatotic and non-steatotic livers undergoing partial hepatectomy under ischemia-reperfusion, a procedure commonly applied in clinical practice to reduce bleeding. METHODS: Resistin and visfatin were pharmacologically modulated in lean and obese animals undergoing partial hepatectomy under ischemia-reperfusion. RESULTS: No evident role for these adipocytokines was observed in non-steatotic livers. However, obese animals undergoing liver surgery showed increased resistin in liver and plasma, without changes in adipose tissue, together with visfatin downregulation in liver and increment in plasma and adipose tissue. Endogenous resistin maintains low levels of visfatin in the liver by blocking its hepatic uptake from the circulation, thus regulating the visfatin detrimental effects on hepatic damage and regenerative failure. Indeed, the administration of anti-resistin antibodies increased hepatic accumulation of adipocyte-derived visfatin, exacerbating damage and regenerative failure. Interestingly, treatment with anti-visfatin antibodies protected steatotic livers, and similar results were obtained with the concomitant inhibition of resistin and visfatin. Thus, when visfatin was inhibited, the injurious effects of anti-resistin antibodies disappeared. Herein we show that upregulation of visfatin increased NAD levels in the remnant steatotic liver, whereas visfatin inhibition decreased them. These later observations suggest that visfatin may favour synthesis of NAD instead of DNA and induces alterations in amino acid metabolism-urea cycle and NO production, overall negatively affecting liver viability. CONCLUSIONS: Our results indicate the clinical potential of visfatin blocking-based therapies in steatotic livers undergoing partial hepatectomy with ischemia-reperfusion.

Adiponectin and resistin protect steatotic livers undergoing transplantation.

BACKGROUND & AIMS: Numerous steatotic livers are discarded for transplantation because of their poor tolerance to ischemia-reperfusion. Controversial roles for adiponectin and related adipocytokines visfatin and resistin have been described in different liver pathologies, nevertheless it is unknown their possible implication in ischemia-reperfusion injury associated with liver transplantation. Our study aimed at characterizing the role of the adiponectin-derived molecular pathway in transplantation with steatotic and non-steatotic liver grafts. METHODS: Steatotic and non-steatotic liver transplantation was carried out and the hepatic levels of adiponectin, visfatin and resistin were measured and modulated either pharmacologically or surgically. RESULTS: Steatotic liver grafts exhibited downregulation of both adiponectin and resistin when subjected to transplantation. Adiponectin pre-treatment only protected steatotic grafts and did it so through a visfatin-independent and resistin-dependent mechanism. Adiponectin-derived resistin accumulation activated the PI3K/Akt pathway, unravelling AMPK as an upstream mediator of adiponectin's actions in steatotic grafts. Strategies aimed at increasing adiponectin including either AMPK activators or the induction of ischemic preconditioning (which activates AMPK) increased resistin accumulation, prevented the downregulation of PI3K/Akt pathway and protected steatotic liver grafts. Conversely, PI3K/Akt pathway upregulation and hepatic protection induced by adiponectin were abolished when resistin action was inhibited. CONCLUSIONS: Our findings reveal a new protective pathway in steatotic liver transplantation, namely AMPK-adiponectin-resistin-PI3K/Akt, which may help develop new strategies aimed at increasing either adiponectin or resistin in the steatotic liver undergoing transplant to ultimately increase organ donor pool and reduce waiting list.

Hepatic ischemia and reperfusion injury: effects on the liver sinusoidal milieu.

Ischemia-reperfusion injury is an important cause of liver damage occurring during surgical procedures including hepatic resection and liver transplantation, and represents the main underlying cause of graft dysfunction post-transplantation. Cellular and biochemical processes occurring during hepatic ischemia-reperfusion are diverse and complex, and include the deregulation of the healthy phenotype of all liver cellular components. Nevertheless, a significant part of these processes are still unknown or unclear. The present review aims at summarizing the current knowledge in liver ischemia-reperfusion, but specifically focusing on liver cell phenotype and paracrine interaction deregulations. Moreover, the most updated therapeutic strategies including pharmacological, genetic and surgical interventions, as well as some of the scientific controversies in the field will be described. Finally, the importance of considering the subclinical situation of liver grafts when translating basic knowledge to the bedside is discussed.