The activity of suprahyoid muscles during sevoflurane-induced gasping in mice.

Sevoflurane-induced gasping in mice involves an enormous increase in inspiratory effort, mandibular movement, and a marked decrease in respiratory frequency (fR). We examined differences in breathing patterns and electromyogram activity (EMGSH) of the suprahyoid muscles (SHMs) during eupnea under 3.2% (1 MAC: minimum alveolar concentration) sevoflurane inhalation and sevoflurane-induced gasping under 6.5% (2 MAC) sevoflurane inhalation in eight spontaneously breathing, tracheally intubated, adult mice. We found that the phasic EMGSH is obtained only during inspiration in eupnea and gasping and that integrated EMGSH increases more, as a percent of baseline (% baseline) than tidal volume (VT) during gasping (median [interquartile range]; integrated EMGSH: 720 [425-1965] vs. VT: 300 [238-373], P<0.05). We also found that the onset of EMGSH precedes the start of airflow while maintaining a bell-shaped EMGSH contour, which characterizes the EMG of upper airway dilator (UAD) muscles during eupnea and gasping. Vigorous respiratory-related mandibular movements were never observed during eupnea but were observed in seven of 8 mice during sevoflurane-induced gasping. Our observations indicate that SHMs act as a preferentially activating UAD muscle, contributing to the development of mandibular respiratory movements.

Unraveling the Connection: Pain and Endoplasmic Reticulum Stress.

Pain is a complex and multifaceted experience. Recent research has increasingly focused on the role of endoplasmic reticulum (ER) stress in the induction and modulation of pain. The ER is an essential organelle for cells and plays a key role in protein folding and calcium dynamics. Various pathological conditions, such as ischemia, hypoxia, toxic substances, and increased protein production, may disturb protein folding, causing an increase in misfolding proteins in the ER. Such an overload of the folding process leads to ER stress and causes the unfolded protein response (UPR), which increases folding capacity in the ER. Uncompensated ER stress impairs intracellular signaling and cell function, resulting in various diseases, such as diabetes and degenerative neurological diseases. ER stress may be a critical universal mechanism underlying human diseases. Pain sensations involve the central as well as peripheral nervous systems. Several preclinical studies indicate that ER stress in the nervous system is enhanced in various painful states, especially in neuropathic pain conditions. The purpose of this narrative review is to uncover the intricate relationship between ER stress and pain, exploring molecular pathways, implications for various pain conditions, and potential therapeutic strategies.

Changes in breathing pattern during severe hypothermia and autoresuscitation from hypothermic respiratory arrest in anesthetized mice.

Some evidence suggests that both hypothermia and anesthesia can exert similar effects on metabolism and ventilation. This study examined the synergistic effects of anesthesia and hypothermia on ventilation in spontaneously breathing adult mice under three different conditions, that is, (1) pentobarbital group (n = 7) in which mice were anesthetized with intraperitoneal pentobarbital of 80 mg/kg, (2) sevoflurane-continued group (n = 7) in which mice were anesthetized with 1 MAC sevoflurane, and (3) sevoflurane-discontinued group (n = 7) in which sevoflurane was discontinued at a body temperature below 22˚C. We cooled mice in each group until breathing ceased and followed this with artificial rewarming while measuring changes in respiratory variables and heart rate. We found that the body temperature at which respiration arrested is much lower in the sevoflurane-discontinued group (13.8 ± 2.0˚C) than that in the sevoflurane-continued group (16.7 ± 1.2˚C) and the pentobarbital group (17.0 ± 1.4˚C). Upon rewarming, all animals in all three groups spontaneously recovered from respiratory arrest. There was a considerable difference in breathing patterns between sevoflurane-anesthetized mice and pentobarbital-anesthetized mice during progressive hypothermia in terms of changes in tidal volume and respiratory frequency. The changes in the respiratory pattern during rewarming are nearly mirrored images of the changes observed during cooling in all three groups. These observations indicate that adult mice are capable of autoresuscitation from hypothermic respiratory arrest and that anesthesia and hypothermia exert synergistic effects on the occurrence of respiratory arrest while the type of anesthetic affects the breathing pattern that occurs during progressive hypothermia leading to respiratory arrest.

Pharmacological Chaperones Attenuate the Development of Opioid Tolerance.

Opioids are potent analgesics widely used to control acute and chronic pain, but long-term use induces tolerance that reduces their effectiveness. Opioids such as morphine bind to mu opioid receptors (MORs), and several downstream signaling pathways are capable of inducing tolerance. We previously reported that signaling from the endoplasmic reticulum (ER) contributed to the development of morphine tolerance. Accumulation of misfolded proteins in the ER induced the unfolded protein response (UPR) that causes diverse pathological conditions. We examined the effects of pharmacological chaperones that alleviate ER stress on opioid tolerance development by assessing thermal nociception in mice. Pharmacological chaperones such as tauroursodeoxycholic acid and 4-phenylbutyrate suppressed the development of morphine tolerance and restored analgesia. Chaperones alone did not cause analgesia. Although morphine administration induced analgesia when glycogen synthase kinase 3ß (GSK3ß) was in an inactive state due to serine 9 phosphorylation, repeated morphine administration suppressed this phosphorylation event. Co-administration of chaperones maintained the inactive state of GSK3ß. These results suggest that ER stress may facilitate morphine tolerance due to intracellular crosstalk between the UPR and MOR signaling. Pharmacological chaperones may be useful in the management of opioid misuse.

A high concentration of sevoflurane induces gasping breaths in mice.

The purpose of this study is to compare changes in breathing patterns elicited by hypoxic stress and/or anesthetic stress in mice. Spontaneously breathing anesthetized mice whose tracheae were intubated with a tracheal cannula were challenged with hypoxic stress and/or sevoflurane-induced anesthetic stress while ventilation was measured with a pneumotachograph. When anesthesia was maintained at a light level with inhalation of 2.3 % sevoflurane (0.7 MAC), exposure to severe hypoxic gas (5% O2 in N2) triggered a breathing pattern characterized by gasping respiration. Inhalation of a high concentration of sevoflurane (6.5 %: 2.0 MAC) under hyperoxia elicited the same gasping. Also, the combination of mild hypoxia (inhalation of 10 % O2 in N2) and moderate sevoflurane anesthesia (3.25 %: 1.0 MAC) consistently elicited the same gasping, while mild hypoxic and moderate anesthetic stress alone did not elicit any gasping. These findings suggest that both hypoxia-induced gasping and sevoflurane-induced gasping could be generated by the same intrinsic mechanism within the brainstem.

Conflicting Actions of Inhalational Anesthetics, Neurotoxicity and Neuroprotection, Mediated by the Unfolded Protein Response.

Preclinical studies have shown that exposure of the developing brain to inhalational anesthetics can cause neurotoxicity. However, other studies have claimed that anesthetics can exert neuroprotective effects. We investigated the mechanisms associated with the neurotoxic and neuroprotective effects exerted by inhalational anesthetics. Neuroblastoma cells were exposed to sevoflurane and then cultured in 1% oxygen. We evaluated the expression of proteins related to the unfolded protein response (UPR). Next, we exposed adult mice in which binding immunoglobulin protein (BiP) had been mutated, and wild-type mice, to sevoflurane, and evaluated their cognitive function. We compared our results to those from our previous study in which mice were exposed to sevoflurane at the fetal stage. Pre-exposure to sevoflurane reduced the expression of CHOP in neuroblastoma cells exposed to hypoxia. Anesthetic pre-exposure also significantly improved the cognitive function of adult wild-type mice, but not the mutant mice. In contrast, mice exposed to anesthetics during the fetal stage showed cognitive impairment. Our data indicate that exposure to inhalational anesthetics causes endoplasmic reticulum (ER) stress, and subsequently leads to an adaptive response, the UPR. This response may enhance the capacity of cells to adapt to injuries and improve neuronal function in adult mice, but not in developing mice.

Pathogenic Effects of Impaired Retrieval between the Endoplasmic Reticulum and Golgi Complex.

Cellular activities, such as growth and secretion, are dependent on correct protein folding and intracellular protein transport. Injury, like ischemia, malnutrition, and invasion of toxic substances, affect the folding environment in the endoplasmic reticulum (ER). The ER senses this information, following which cells adapt their response to varied situations through the unfolded protein response. Activation of the KDEL receptor, resulting from the secretion from the ER of chaperones containing the KDEL sequence, plays an important role in this adaptation. The KDEL receptor was initially shown to be necessary for the retention of KDEL sequence-containing proteins in the ER. However, it has become clear that the activated KDEL receptor also regulates bidirectional transport between the ER and the Golgi complex, as well as from the Golgi to the secretory pathway. In addition, it has been suggested that the signal for KDEL receptor activation may also affect several other cellular activities. In this review, we discuss KDEL receptor-mediated bidirectional transport and signaling and describe disease models and human diseases related to KDEL receptor dysfunction.

A simple and safe method for tracheal intubation using a supraglottic intubation-aid device in mice.

Although mice are a commonly used animal species in experimental medicine, airway management of this species is not easy due to their small size. In order to develop a new method of tracheal intubation in mice, we produced a supraglottic intubation-aid conduit (SIAC) for mice, and tested the efficacy of this device in spontaneously breathing mice anesthetized with sevoflurane inhalation. The success rate of tracheal intubation with the crude prototype of the SIAC was 50% and adverse effects on respiration and some trauma in the upper airway were occasionally observed. After refining the size and shape of the SIAC, the success rate of tracheal intubation with the refined prototype of the SIAC was 100% without any serious adverse effects. This study showed that it is possible to produce a supraglottic airway device to aid tracheal intubation in mice and that the shape and size of the SIAC play a crucial role in successful tracheal intubation in mice.

Decreased Protein Quality Control Promotes the Cognitive Dysfunction Associated With Aging and Environmental Insults.

Background: Most neurodegenerative diseases are sporadic and develop with age. Degenerative neural tissues often contain intra- and extracellular protein aggregates, suggesting that the proteostasis network that combats protein misfolding could be dysfunctional in the setting of neurodegenerative disease. Binding immunoglobulin protein (BiP) is an endoplasmic reticulum (ER) chaperone that is crucial for protein folding and modulating the adaptive response in early secretory pathways. The interaction between BiP and unfolded proteins is mediated by the substrate-binding domain and nucleotide-binding domain with ATPase activity. The interaction facilitates protein folding and maturation. BiP has a recovery motif at the carboxyl terminus. The aim of this study is to examine cognitive function in model mice with an impaired proteostasis network by expressing a mutant form of BiP lacking the recovery motif. We also investigated if impairments of cognitive function were exacerbated by exposure to environmental insults, such as inhaled anesthetics. Methods: We examined cognitive function by performing radial maze testing with mutant BiP mice and assessed the additional impact of general anesthesia in the context of proteostasis dysfunction. Testing over 8 days was performed 10 weeks, 6 months, and 1 year after birth. Results: Age-related cognitive decline occurred in both forms of mice. The mutant BiP and anesthetic exposure promoted cognitive dysfunction prior to the senile period. After senescence, when mice were tested at 6 months of age and at 1 year old, there were no significant differences between the two genotypes in terms of the radial maze testing; furthermore, there was no significant difference when tested with and without anesthetic exposure. Conclusion: Our data suggest that aging was the predominant factor underlying the impairment of cognitive function in this study. Impairment of the proteostasis network may promote age-related neurodegeneration, and this is exacerbated by external insults.

The Role of BiP Retrieval by the KDEL Receptor in the Early Secretory Pathway and its Effect on Protein Quality Control and Neurodegeneration.

Protein quality control in the early secretory pathway is a ubiquitous eukaryotic mechanism for adaptation to endoplasmic reticulum (ER) stress. An ER molecular chaperone, immunoglobulin heavy chain-binding protein (BiP), is one of the essential components in this process. BiP interacts with nascent proteins to facilitate their folding. BiP also plays an important role in preventing aggregation of misfolded proteins and regulating the ER stress response when cells suffer various injuries. BiP is a member of the 70-kDa heat shock protein (HSP70) family of molecular chaperones that resides in the ER. Interaction between BiP and unfolded proteins is mediated by a substrate-binding domain and a nucleotide-binding domain for ATPase activity, leading to protein folding and maturation. BiP also possesses a retrieval motif in its carboxyl terminal. When BiP is secreted from the ER, the Lys-Asp-Glu-Leu (KDEL) receptor in the post-ER compartments binds with the carboxyl terminal KDEL sequence of BiP and returns BiP to the ER via coat protein complex I (COPI) vesicular transport. Although yeast studies showed that BiP retrieval by the KDEL receptor is not essential in single cells, it is crucial for multicellular organisms, where some essential proteins require retrieval to facilitate folding and maturation. Experiments in knock-in mice expressing mutant BiP with the retrieval motif deleted revealed a unique role of BiP retrieval by the KDEL receptor in neuronal development and age-related neurodegeneration.

Sublethal endoplasmic reticulum stress caused by the mutation of immunoglobulin heavy chain-binding protein induces the synthesis of a mitochondrial protein, pyrroline-5-carboxylate reductase 1.

Most human neurodegenerative diseases are sporadic and appear later in life. Aging and neurodegeneration are closely associated, and recent investigations reveal that endoplasmic reticulum (ER) stress is involved in the progression of these features. Immunoglobulin heavy chain-binding protein (BiP) is an ER chaperone that is central to ER functions. We produced knock-in mice expressing a mutant BiP that lacked the retrieval sequence to elucidate the effect of a functional defect in an ER chaperone in multicellular organisms. The homozygous mutant BiP mice died within several hours after birth because of respiratory failure with an impaired biosynthesis of pulmonary surfactant by alveolar type II cells. The heterozygous mutant BiP mice grew up to be apparently normal adults, although some of them revealed motor disabilities as they aged. Here, we report that the synthesis of a mitochondrial protein, pyrroline-5-carboxylate reductase 1 (PYCR1), is enhanced in the brains of homozygous mutant BiP mice. We performed a two-dimensional gel analysis followed by liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry. PYCR1 was identified as one of the enhanced proteins. We also found that sublethal ER stress caused by tunicamycin treatment induced the synthesis of PYCR1 in murine fibroblasts. PYCR1 has been shown to be related to the aging process. Mutations in the PYCR1 gene cause cutis laxa with progeroid features and mental retardation. These findings suggest a pathophysiological interaction between ER stress and a mitochondrial function in aging.

Late-onset of spinal neurodegeneration in knock-in mice expressing a mutant BiP.

Most human neurodegenerative diseases are sporadic, and appear later in life. While the underlying mechanisms of the progression of those diseases are still unclear, investigations into the familial forms of comparable diseases suggest that endoplasmic reticulum (ER) stress is involved in the pathogenesis. Binding immunoglobulin protein (BiP) is an ER chaperone that is central to ER function. We produced knock-in mice expressing a mutant BiP that lacked the retrieval sequence in order to evaluate the effect of a functional defect in an ER chaperone in multi-cellular organisms. Here we report that heterozygous mutant BiP mice revealed motor disabilities in aging. We found a degeneration of some motoneurons in the spinal cord accompanied by accumulations of ubiquitinated proteins. The defect in retrieval of BiP by the KDEL receptor leads to impaired activities in quality control and autophagy, suggesting that functional defects in the ER chaperones may contribute to the late onset of neurodegenerative diseases.

The effect of endoplasmic reticulum stress on neurotoxicity caused by inhaled anesthetics.

BACKGROUND: The mechanisms by which inhaled anesthetics cause neurotoxicity are not well clarified. Exposure to inhaled anesthetics induces a release of Ca from the endoplasmic reticulum (ER) into the cytosol. Aberrant Ca mobilization may alter the protein-folding environment in the ER, causing ER stress. Binding immunoglobulin protein (BiP) is an ER chaperone that is critical to ER functions. Because ER stress leads to cellular dysfunction and apoptotic cell death, leading to diverse human disorders such as neurodegenerative diseases, we hypothesized ER stress may play a role in neurotoxicity caused by inhaled anesthetics. METHODS: We investigated the relationship between ER stress and neurodegeneration caused by inhaled anesthetics by using knock-in mice expressing a mutant BiP and neuronal culture cells. Neuronal culture cells and mutant BiP pregnant mice were exposed to 3% sevoflurane. The levels of BiP and C/EBP homologous protein (CHOP), a transcription factor related to cell death during ER stress, were evaluated by Western blot in neuronal cells and fetal brains delivered by cesarean delivery. Cell death in the fetal brains was evaluated with TUNEL staining. Statistical significance was assessed using unpaired t test and analysis of variance followed by multiple comparison tests. RESULTS: Sevoflurane exposure enhanced the expression of BiP and CHOP significantly in neuronal culture cells. A chemical chaperone that assisted ER functions reduced the expression of CHOP induced by sevoflurane exposure. In an in vivo study, we observed that an enhanced expression of CHOP and significantly more apoptotic cells in the brains of homozygous mutant BiP fetuses compared with the wild type. Mouse embryonic fibroblasts derived from the mutant BiP mice also exhibited enhanced levels of CHOP and cleaved caspase-3 after sevoflurane exposure. CONCLUSIONS: Sevoflurane exposure may cause ER stress, which is tolerated to some extent in wild-type cells. When this tolerance is limited, like in cells with mutant BiP, the exposure leads to cell death in the brain, suggesting that ER stress may partially mediate neurotoxicity caused by inhaled anesthetics. This study suggests that patients with certain conditions sensitive to ER stress such as ischemia, hypoxia, developing brain, or neurodegenerative diseases may be vulnerable to inhaled anesthetics.

Valproate attenuates the development of morphine antinociceptive tolerance.

Morphine is a potent opioid analgesic. Repeated administration of morphine induces tolerance, thus reducing the effectiveness of analgesic treatment. Although some adjuvant analgesics can increase morphine analgesia, the precise molecular mechanism behind their effects remains unclear. Opioids bind to the mu opioid receptor (MOR). Morphine tolerance may be derived from alterations in the intracellular signal transduction after MOR activation. Chronic morphine treatment activates glycogen synthase kinase 3ß (GSK3ß), whose inhibition diminishes morphine tolerance. Valproate is widely prescribed as an anticonvulsant and a mood stabilizer for bipolar disorders because it increases the amount of γ-aminobutyric acid (GABA) in the central nervous system. Although the activation of GABAergic neurons may be responsible for the chief pharmacologic effect of valproate, recent studies have shown that valproate also suppresses GSK3ß activity. We examined the effect of valproate on the development of morphine antinociceptive tolerance in a mouse model of thermal injury. Mice were treated with morphine alone or with morphine and valproate twice daily for 5 days. The resulting antinociceptive effects were assessed using a hot plate test. While mice treated with morphine developed tolerance, co-administration of valproate attenuated the development of tolerance and impaired the activation of GSK3ß in mice brains. Valproate alone did not show analgesic effects; nevertheless, it functioned as an adjuvant analgesic to prevent the development of morphine tolerance. These results suggest that the modulation of GSK3ß activity by valproate may be useful and may play a role in the prevention of morphine tolerance.

BiP, an endoplasmic reticulum chaperone, modulates the development of morphine antinociceptive tolerance.

Morphine is a potent analgesic, but the molecular mechanism for tolerance formation after repeated use is not fully understood. Binding immunoglobulin protein (BiP) is an endoplasmic reticulum (ER) chaperone that is central to ER function. We examined knock-in mice expressing a mutant BiP with the retrieval sequence deleted in order to elucidate physiological processes that are sensitive to BiP functions. We tested the thermal antinociceptive effect of morphine in heterozygous mutant BiP mice in a hot plate test. Paw withdrawal latencies before and after a single administration of morphine were not significantly different between the wild-type and mutant BiP mice. Repeated morphine administration caused the development of morphine tolerance in the wild-type mice. The activation of glycogen synthase kinase 3b (GSK-3b) was associated with morphine tolerance, because an inhibitor of GSK-3ß prevented it. On the other hand, the mutant BiP mice showed less morphine tolerance, and the activation of GSK-3b was suppressed in their brain. These results suggest that BiP may play an important role in the development of morphine tolerance. Furthermore, we found that a chemical chaperone which improves ER protein folding capacity also attenuated the development of morphine tolerance in wild-type mice, suggesting a possible clinical application of chemical chaperones in preventing morphine tolerance.

Altered quality control in the endoplasmic reticulum causes cortical dysplasia in knock-in mice expressing a mutant BiP.

Binding immunoglobulin protein (BiP) is an endoplasmic reticulum (ER) molecular chaperone that is central to ER function. We examined knock-in mice expressing a mutant BiP in order to elucidate physiological processes that are sensitive to BiP functions during development and adulthood. The mutant BiP lacked the retrieval sequence that normally functions to return BiP to the ER from the secretory pathway. This allowed us to examine the effects of a defect in ER function without completely eliminating BiP function. The homozygous mutant BiP neonates died after birth due to respiratory failure. Besides that, the mutant BiP mice displayed disordered layer formation in the cerebral cortex and cerebellum, a neurological phenotype of reeler mutant-like malformation. Consistent with the phenotype, Cajal-Retzius (CR) cells did not secrete reelin, and the expression of reelin was markedly reduced posttranscriptionally. Furthermore, the reduction in the size of the whole brain and the apparent scattering of CR cells throughout the cortex, which were distinct from the reeler phenotype, were also seen. These findings suggest that the maturation and secretion of reelin in CR cells and other factors related to neural migration may be sensitive to aberrant ER quality control, which may cause various neurological disorders.

Dysfunction of the ER chaperone BiP accelerates the renal tubular injury.

Tubular-interstitial injury plays a key role in the progression of chronic kidney disease. Although endoplasmic reticulum (ER) stress plays significant roles in the development of chronic diseases such as neurodegenerative disease, cardiomyopathy and diabetes mellitus, its pathophysiological role in chronic renal tubular cell injury remains unknown. BiP is an essential chaperone molecule that helps with proper protein folding in the ER. Recently, we have produced a knock-in mouse that expresses a mutant-BiP in which the retrieval sequence to the ER is deleted in order to elucidate physiological processes that are sensitive to ER functions in adulthood. The heterozygous mutant-BiP mice showed significant tubular-interstitial lesions with aging. Furthermore, proteinuria induced by chronic protein overload accelerated the tubular-interstitial lesions in the mutant mice, accompanying caspase-12 activation and tubular cell apoptosis. These results suggest that the ER stress pathway is significantly involved in the pathophysiology of chronic renal tubular-interstitial injury in vivo.

Differential binding properties of B7-H1 and B7-DC to programmed death-1.

Programmed death-1 (PD-1) is a negative regulatory receptor expressed on activated T and B cells. Two ligands for PD-1, B7-H1 (PD-L1) and B7-DC (PD-L2), have been identified, but their binding properties have not been characterized yet. In this study, we generated soluble Ig fusion proteins of these molecules and examined the kinetics and relative affinities of the interactions between B7-H1 or B7-DC and PD-1 by flow cytometry and surface plasmon resonance. The interaction of B7-DC/PD-1 exhibited a 2-6-fold higher affinity and had different association/dissociation kinetics compared with the interaction of B7-H1/PD-1. Our results suggest that the differential binding properties of B7-H1 and B7-DC may be responsible for differential contributions of these two PD-1 ligands to immune responses.