Single opsin driven white noise ERGs in mice.

Purpose: Electroretinograms elicited by photopigment isolating white noise stimuli (wnERGs) in mice were measured. The dependency of rod- and cone-opsin-driven wnERGs on mean luminance was studied. Methods: Temporal white noise stimuli (containing all frequencies up to 20 Hz, equal amplitudes, random phases) that modulated either rhodopsin, S-opsin or L*-opsin, using the double silent substitution technique, were used to record wnERGs in mice expressing a human L*-opsin instead of the native murine M-opsin. Responses were recorded at 4 mean luminances (MLs).Impulse response functions (IRFs) were obtained by cross-correlating the wnERG recordings with the corresponding modulation of the photopigment excitation elicited by the stimulus. So-called modulation transfer functions (MTFs) were obtained by performing a Fourier transform on the IRFs.Potentials of two repeated wnERG recordings at corresponding time points were plotted against each other. The correlation coefficient (r2repr) of the linear regression through these data was used to quantify reproducibility. Another correlation coefficient (r2ML) was used to quantify the correlations of the wnERGs obtained at different MLs with those at the highest (for cone isolating stimuli) or lowest (for rod isolating stimuli) ML. Results: IRFs showed an initial negative (a-wave like) trough N1 and a subsequent positive (b-wave like) peak P1. No oscillatory potential-like components were observed. At 0.4 and 1.0 log cd/m2 ML robust L*- and S-opsin-driven IRFs were obtained that displayed similar latencies and dependencies on ML. L*-opsin-driven IRFs were 2.5-3 times larger than S-opsin-driven IRFs. Rhodopsin-driven IRFs were observed at -0.8 and - 0.2 log cd/m2 and decreased in amplitude with increasing ML. They displayed an additional pronounced late negativity (N2), which may be a correlate of retinal ganglion cell activity.R2repr and r2ML values increased for cones with increasing ML whereas they decreased for rods. For rhodopsin-driven MTFs at low MLs and L*-opsin-driven MTFs at high MLs amplitudes decreased with increasing frequency, with much faster decreasing amplitudes for rhodopsin. A delay was calculated from MTF phases showing larger delays for rhodopsin- vs. low delays for L*-opsin-driven responses. Conclusion: Opsin-isolating wnERGs in mice show characteristics of different retinal cell types and their connected pathways.

Retinal dystrophins and the retinopathy of Duchenne muscular dystrophy.

Duchenne muscular dystrophy (DMD) is caused by X-linked inherited or de novo DMD gene mutations predominantly affecting males who develop early-onset muscle degeneration, severely affecting their quality of life and leading to reduced life expectancy. DMD patients may also develop proliferative retinopathy, cataract, ERG abnormalities, altered contrast sensitivity, color vision losses, and elevated flash detection thresholds during dark adaptation. Depending on the position of the genetic alteration in the large DMD gene, it is associated with a lack of the full-length dystrophin protein possibly with an additional loss of one or several other dystrophins, which are normally transcribed from internal promoters in retina and crystalline lens. During the last decades, the properties of the dystrophins have been characterized in patients with different genetic alterations and in genetic mouse models of DMD. The complex expression pattern of the dystrophins in photoreceptors, Müller glial cells and astrocytes, likely influences synaptic transmission, ionic balance and vascular integrity of the retina. However, the specific function of each retinal dystrophin remains largely unknown. This review describes the current knowledge on dystrophin expression, the putative molecular, structural, and physiological properties of retinal dystrophins, and the main clinical implications associated with the loss of dystrophins in DMD patients and mouse models. Current data and working hypotheses warrant future research on retinal dystrophins to increase our understanding of dystrophin function in the central nervous system in general and to unveil new retinal mechanisms and therapeutic avenues for retinal diseases.

Luminance white noise electroretinograms (wnERGs) in mice.

Purpose: To record and analyse electroretinograms (ERGs) to luminance stimuli with white noise temporal profiles in mice. White noise stimuli are expected to keep the retina in a physiologically more natural state than, e.g., flashes. The influence of mean luminance (ML) was studied. Methods: Electroretinograms to luminance temporal white noise (TWN) modulation (wnERGs) were measured. The white noise stimuli contained all frequencies up to 20 Hz with equal amplitudes and random phases. Responses were recorded at 7 MLs between -0.7 and 1.2 log cd/m2. Impulse response functions (IRFs) were calculated by cross correlating the averaged white noise electroretinogram (wnERG) responses with the stimulus. Amplitudes and latencies of the initial trough and subsequent peak in the IRFs were measured at each ML. Fourier transforms of the IRFs resulted in modulation transfer functions (MTFs). wnERGs were averaged across different animals. They were measured twice and the responses at identical instances in the 1st and 2nd recordings were plotted against each other. The correlation coefficient (r 2 repr) of the linear regression quantified the reproducibility. The results of the first and second measurement were further averaged. To study the underlying ERG mechanisms, the ERG potentials at the different MLs were plotted against those at the lowest and highest ML. The correlation coefficients (r 2 ML) were used to quantify their similarities. Results: The amplitudes of the initial (a-wave-like) trough of the IRFs increased with increasing ML. The following positive (b-wave-like) peak showed a minimum at -0.4 log cd/m2 above which there was a positive correlation between amplitude and ML. Their latencies decreased monotonously with increasing ML. In none of the IRFs, oscillatory potential (OP)-like components were observed. r 2 repr values were minimal at a ML of -0.1 log cd/m2, where the MTFs changed from low-pass to band-pass. r 2 ML values increased and decreased with increasing ML when correlated with responses obtained at the highest or the lowest ML, respectively. Conclusion: White noise electroretinograms can be reliably recorded in mice with luminance stimuli. IRFs resemble flash ERGs superficially, but they offer a novel procedure to study retinal physiology. New components can be described in the IRFs. The wnERGs are either rod- or cone-driven with little overlap.

Cell Types and Synapses Expressing the SNARE Complex Regulating Proteins Complexin 1 and Complexin 2 in Mammalian Retina.

Complexins (Cplxs) 1 to 4 are components of the presynaptic compartment of chemical synapses where they regulate important steps in synaptic vesicle exocytosis. In the retina, all four Cplxs are present, and while we know a lot about Cplxs 3 and 4, little is known about Cplxs 1 and 2. Here, we performed in situ hybridization experiments and bioinformatics and exploited Cplx 1 and Cplx 2 single-knockout mice combined with immunocytochemistry and light microscopy to characterize in detail the cell type and synapse-specific distribution of Cplx 1 and Cplx 2. We found that Cplx 2 and not Cplx 1 is the main isoform expressed in normal and displaced amacrine cells and ganglion cells in mouse retinae and that amacrine cells seem to operate with a single Cplx isoform at their conventional chemical synapses. Surprising was the finding that retinal function, determined with electroretinographic recordings, was altered in Cplx 1 but not Cplx 2 single-knockout mice. In summary, the results provide an important basis for future studies on the function of Cplxs 1 and 2 in the processing of visual signals in the mammalian retina.

Genetic disruption of bassoon in two mutant mouse lines causes divergent retinal phenotypes.

Bassoon (BSN) is a presynaptic cytomatrix protein ubiquitously present at chemical synapses of the central nervous system, where it regulates synaptic vesicle replenishment and organizes voltage-gated Ca2+ channels. In sensory photoreceptor synapses, BSN additionally plays a decisive role in anchoring the synaptic ribbon, a presynaptic organelle and functional extension of the active zone, to the presynaptic membrane. In this study, we functionally and structurally analyzed two mutant mouse lines with a genetic disruption of Bsn-Bsngt and Bsnko -using electrophysiology and high-resolution microscopy. In both Bsn mutant mouse lines, full-length BSN was abolished, and photoreceptor synaptic function was similarly impaired, yet synapse structure was more severely affected in Bsngt/gt than in Bsnko/ko photoreceptors. The synaptic defects in Bsngt/gt retina coincide with remodeling of the outer retina-rod bipolar and horizontal cell sprouting, formation of ectopic ribbon synaptic sites-and death of cone photoreceptors, processes that did not occur in Bsnko/ko retina. An analysis of Bsngt/ko hybrid mice revealed that the divergent retinal phenotypes of Bsngt/gt and Bsnko/ko mice can be attributed to the expression of the Bsngt allele, which triggers cone photoreceptor death and neurite sprouting in the outer retina. These findings shed new light on the existing Bsn mutant mouse models and might help to understand mechanisms that drive photoreceptor death.

Altered visual processing in the mdx52 mouse model of Duchenne muscular dystrophy.

The mdx52 mouse model of Duchenne muscular dystrophy (DMD) is lacking exon 52 of the DMD gene that is located in a hotspot mutation region causing cognitive deficits and retinal anomalies in DMD patients. This deletion leads to the loss of the dystrophin proteins, Dp427, Dp260 and Dp140, while Dp71 is preserved. The flash electroretinogram (ERG) in mdx52 mice was previously characterized by delayed dark-adapted b-waves. A detailed description of functional ERG changes and visual performances in mdx52 mice is, however, lacking. Here an extensive full-field ERG repertoire was applied in mdx52 mice and WT littermates to analyze retinal physiology in scotopic, mesopic and photopic conditions in response to flash, sawtooth and/or sinusoidal stimuli. Behavioral contrast sensitivity was assessed using quantitative optomotor response (OMR) to sinusoidally modulated luminance gratings at 100% or 50% contrast. The mdx52 mice exhibited reduced amplitudes and delayed implicit times in dark-adapted ERG flash responses, particularly in their b-wave and oscillatory potentials, and diminished amplitudes of light-adapted flash ERGs. ERG responses to sawtooth stimuli were also diminished and delayed for both mesopic and photopic conditions in mdx52 mice and the first harmonic amplitudes to photopic sine-wave stimuli were smaller at all temporal frequencies. OMR indices were comparable between genotypes at 100% contrast but significantly reduced in mdx52 mice at 50% contrast. The complex ERG alterations and disturbed contrast vision in mdx52 mice include features observed in DMD patients and suggest altered photoreceptor-to-bipolar cell transmission possibly affecting contrast sensitivity. The mdx52 mouse is a relevant model to appraise the roles of retinal dystrophins and for preclinical studies related to DMD.

Heterogeneous Presynaptic Distribution of Munc13 Isoforms at Retinal Synapses and Identification of an Unconventional Bipolar Cell Type with Dual Expression of Munc13 Isoforms: A Study Using Munc13-EXFP Knock-in Mice.

Munc13 isoforms are constituents of the presynaptic compartment of chemical synapses, where they govern important steps in preparing synaptic vesicles for exocytosis. The role of Munc13-1, -2 and -3 is well documented in brain neurons, but less is known about their function and distribution among the neurons of the retina and their conventional and ribbon-type chemical synapses. Here, we examined the retinae of Munc13-1-, -2-, and -3-EXFP knock-in (KI) mice with a combination of immunocytochemistry, physiology, and electron microscopy. We show that knock-in of Munc13-EXFP fusion proteins did not affect overall retinal anatomy or synapse structure, but slightly affected synaptic transmission. By labeling Munc13-EXFP KI retinae with specific antibodies against Munc13-1, -2 and -3, we found that unlike in the brain, most retinal synapses seem to operate with a single Munc13 isoform. A surprising exception to this rule was type 6 ON bipolar cells, which expressed two Munc13 isoforms in their synaptic terminals, ubMunc13-2 and Munc13-3. The results of this study provide an important basis for future studies on the contribution of Munc13 isoforms in visual signal processing in the mammalian retina.

Rescue of Defective Electroretinographic Responses in Dp71-Null Mice With AAV-Mediated Reexpression of Dp71.

Purpose: To study the potential effect of a gene therapy, designed to rescue the expression of dystrophin Dp71 in the retinas of Dp71-null mice, on retinal physiology. Methods: We recorded electroretinograms (ERGs) in Dp71-null and wild-type littermate mice. In dark-adapted eyes, responses to flashes of several strengths were measured. In addition, flash responses on a 25-candela/square meters background were measured. On- and Off-mediated responses to sawtooth stimuli and responses to photopic sine-wave modulation (3-30 Hz) were also recorded. After establishing the ERG phenotype, the ShH10-GFP adeno-associated virus (AAV), which has been previously shown to target specifically Müller glial cells (MGCs), was delivered intravitreously with or without (sham therapy) the Dp71 coding sequence under control of a CBA promoter. ERG recordings were repeated three months after treatment. Real-time quantitative PCR and Western blotting analyses were performed in order to quantify Dp71 expression in the retinas. Results: Dp71-null mice displayed reduced b-waves in dark- and light-adapted flash ERGs and smaller response amplitudes to photopic rapid-on sawtooth modulation and to sine-wave stimuli. Three months after intravitreal injections of the ShH10-GFP-2A-Dp71 AAV vector, ERG responses were completely recovered in treated eyes of Dp71-null mice. The functional rescue was associated with an overexpression of Dp71 in treated retinas. Conclusions: The present results show successful functional recovery accompanying the reexpression of Dp71. In addition, this experimental model sheds light on MGCs influencing ERG components, since previous reports showed that aquaporin 4 and Kir4.1 channels were mislocated in MGCs of Dp71-null mice, while their distribution could be normalized following intravitreal delivery of the same ShH10-GFP-2A-Dp71 vector.

Lack of a Retinal Phenotype in a Syne-2/Nesprin-2 Knockout Mouse Model.

Syne-2 (also known as Nesprin-2) is a member of a family of proteins that are found primarily in the outer nuclear membrane, as well as other subcellular compartments. Syne-2 contains a C-terminal KASH transmembrane domain and is part of a protein network that associates the nuclear envelope to the cytoskeleton via the binding to actin filaments. Syne-2 plays a role in nuclear migration, nuclear positioning during retinal development, and in ciliogenesis. In a previous study, we showed a connection between Syne-2 and the multifunctional scaffold protein Pericentrin (Pcnt). The elimination of the interaction of Syne-2 and Pcnt showed defects in nuclear migration and the formation of outer segments during retinal development, as well as disturbances in centrosomal migration at the beginning of ciliogenesis in general. In this study, the Syne-2 KO mouse model Nesprin-2△ABD (Syne-2tm1Ngl, MGI) with special attention to Pcnt and ciliogenesis was analyzed. We show reduced expression of Syne-2 in the retina of the Syne-2 KO mouse but found no significant structural-and only a minor functional-phenotype. For the first time, detailed expression analyses showed an expression of a Syne-2 protein larger than 400 kDa (~750 kDa) in the Syne2/Nesprin-2 KO mouse. In conclusion, the lack of an overt phenotype in Syne-2/Nesprin-2 KO mice suggests the usage of alternative translational start sites, producing Syne-2 splice variants with an intact Pcnt interaction site. Nevertheless, deletion of the actin-binding site in the Syne-2/Nesprin-2 KO mouse revealed a high variability in scotopic oscillatory potentials assuming a novel function of Syne-2 in synchronizing inner retinal processes.

Mouse Cones Adapt Fast, Rods Slowly In Vivo.

Purpose: To study rod- and cone-driven adaptation dynamics separately, we used the silent substitution technique to selectively stimulate rods or cones in the Opn1lwLIAIS (LIAIS) mouse, in which the native M-cone pigment is replaced by a human L-cone pigment (L*). Methods: ERG recordings were performed on anesthetized LIAIS mice. ERG stimuli were sinusoidally modulated. After 10 minutes of adaptation to 0.4 candela per square meter (cd/m2) ERGs were measured, followed by 11-minute adaptation to 8.8 cd/m2 background and recordings directly after the luminance increase and every second minute. Finally, during adaptation to 0.4 cd/m2 for 32 minutes, ERG responses were recorded directly after the change in background and every second minute. This protocol was repeated with rod-isolating stimuli (8 Hz; 75% rod contrast), L*-cone-isolating stimuli (12 Hz; 55% cone contrast) and white light (8 Hz and 12 Hz; 100% Michelson contrast). Results: At 8.8 cd/m2, responses directly displayed photopic response properties without further changes in either cone or white light responses. Rod-driven responses were very small. After the return to 0.4 cd/m2, both rod-driven and white light responses increased over a time course of about 30 minutes. Cone-driven responses were very small. Response phases changed directly after a change in background without further alterations. Conclusions: Rod- and cone-driven signal pathways display strongly different adaptation characteristics: adaptation of cone-driven responses to photopic conditions is very fast, whereas rod-driven responses change with a time course up to 30 minutes during scotopic conditions. Luminance responses are cone-driven at 8.8 cd/m2 and rod-driven at 0.4 cd/m2.

A Multiple Piccolino-RIBEYE Interaction Supports Plate-Shaped Synaptic Ribbons in Retinal Neurons.

Active zones at chemical synapses are highly specialized sites for the regulated release of neurotransmitters. Despite a high degree of active zone protein conservation in vertebrates, every type of chemical synapse expresses a given set of protein isoforms and splice variants adapted to the demands on neurotransmitter release. So far, we know little about how specific active zone proteins contribute to the structural and functional diversity of active zones. In this study, we explored the nanodomain organization of ribbon-type active zones by addressing the significance of Piccolino, the ribbon synapse-specific splice variant of Piccolo, for shaping the ribbon structure. We followed up on previous results, which indicated that rod photoreceptor synaptic ribbons lose their structural integrity in a knockdown of Piccolino. Here, we demonstrate an interaction between Piccolino and the major ribbon component RIBEYE that supports plate-shaped synaptic ribbons in retinal neurons. In a detailed ultrastructural analysis of three different types of retinal ribbon synapses in Piccolo/Piccolino-deficient male and female rats, we show that the absence of Piccolino destabilizes the superstructure of plate-shaped synaptic ribbons, although with variable manifestation in the cell types examined. Our analysis illustrates how the expression of a specific active zone protein splice variant (e.g., Piccolino) contributes to structural diversity of vertebrate active zones.SIGNIFICANCE STATEMENT Retinal ribbon synapses are a specialized type of chemical synapse adapted for the regulated fast and tonic release of neurotransmitter. The hallmark of retinal ribbon synapses is the plate-shaped synaptic ribbon, which extends from the release site into the terminals' cytoplasm and tethers hundreds of synaptic vesicles. Here, we show that Piccolino, the synaptic ribbon specific splice variant of Piccolo, interacts with RIBEYE, the main component of synaptic ribbons. This interaction occurs via several PxDLS-like motifs located at the C terminus of Piccolino, which can connect multiple RIBEYE molecules. Loss of Piccolino disrupts the characteristic plate-shaped structure of synaptic ribbons, indicating a role of Piccolino in synaptic ribbon assembly.

GlyT1 determines the glycinergic phenotype of amacrine cells in the mouse retina.

The amino acid glycine acts as a neurotransmitter at both inhibitory glycinergic and excitatory glutamatergic synapses predominantly in caudal regions of the central nervous system but also in frontal brain regions and the retina. After its presynaptic release and binding to postsynaptic receptors at caudal glycinergic synapses, two high-affinity glycine transporters GlyT1 and GlyT2 remove glycine from the extracellular space. Glycinergic neurons express GlyT2, which is essential for the presynaptic replenishment of the transmitter, while glial-expressed GlyT1 was shown to control the extracellular glycine concentration. Here we show that GlyT1 expressed by glycinergic amacrine cells of the retina does not only contribute to the control of the extracellular glycine concentration in the retina but is also essential for the maintenance of the glycinergic transmitter phenotype of this cell population. Specifically, loss of GlyT1 from the glycinergic AII amacrine cells impairs AII-mediated glycinergic neurotransmission and alters regulation of the extracellular glycine concentration, without changes in the overall distribution and/or size of glycinergic synapses. Taken together, our results suggest that GlyT1 expressed by amacrine cells in the retina combines functions covered by neuronal GlyT2 and glial GlyT1 at caudal glycinergic synapses.

Mesopic and Photopic Rod and Cone Photoreceptor-Driven Visual Processes in Mice With Long-Wavelength-Shifted Cone Pigments.

Purpose: The clearer divergence in spectral sensitivity between native rod and human L-cone (L*-cone) opsins in the transgenic Opn1lwLIAIS mouse (LIAIS) allows normal visual processes mediated by these photoreceptor subtypes to be isolated effectively using the silent substitution technique. The objective of this study was to further characterize the influence of mean luminance and temporal frequency on the functional properties of signals originating in each photoreceptor separately and independently of adaptation state in LIAIS mice. Methods: Electroretinographic (ERG) recordings to sine-wave rod and L*-cone modulation at different mean luminances (0.1-130.0 cd/m2) and temporal frequencies (6-26 Hz) were examined in anesthetized LIAIS (N = 17) and C57Bl/6 mice (N = 8). Results: We report maximum rod-driven response with 8-Hz modulation at 0.1 to 0.5 cd/m2, which was almost four times larger than maximum cone-driven response at 8 Hz, 21.5 to 130 cd/m2. Over these optimal luminances, both rod- and cone-driven response amplitudes exhibited low-pass functions with similar frequency resolution limits, albeit their distinct luminance sensitivities. There were, however, two distinguishing features: (1) the frequency-dependent amplitude decrease of rod-driven responses was more profound, and (2) linear relationships describing rod-driven response phases as a function of stimulus frequency were steeper. Conclusions: Employing the silent substitution method with stimuli of appropriate luminance on the LIAIS mouse (as on human observers) increases the specificity, robustness, and scope to which photoreceptor-driven responses can be reliably assayed compared to the standard photoreceptor isolation methods.

Analysis of RIM Expression and Function at Mouse Photoreceptor Ribbon Synapses.

RAB3A-interacting molecule (RIM) proteins are important regulators of transmitter release from active zones. At conventional chemical synapses, RIMs contribute substantially to vesicle priming and docking and their loss reduces the readily releasable pool of synaptic vesicles by up to 75%. The priming function of RIMs is mediated via the formation of a tripartite complex with Munc13 and RAB3A, which brings synaptic vesicles in close proximity to Ca2+ channels and the fusion site and activates Munc13. We reported previously that, at mouse photoreceptor ribbon synapses, vesicle priming is Munc13 independent. In this study, we examined RIM expression, distribution, and function at male and female mouse photoreceptor ribbon synapses. We provide evidence that RIM1α and RIM1ß are highly likely absent from mouse photoreceptors and that RIM2α is the major large RIM isoform present at photoreceptor ribbon synapses. We show that mouse photoreceptors predominantly express RIM2 variants that lack the interaction domain for Munc13. Loss of full-length RIM2α in a RIM2α mutant mouse only marginally perturbs photoreceptor synaptic transmission. Our findings therefore strongly argue for a priming mechanism at the photoreceptor ribbon synapse that is independent of the formation of a RIM-Munc13-RAB3A complex and thus provide further evidence for a fundamental difference between photoreceptor ribbon synapses and conventional chemical synapses in synaptic vesicle exocytosis.SIGNIFICANCE STATEMENT RAB3A-interacting molecules 1 and 2 (RIM1/2) are essential regulators of exocytosis. At conventional chemical synapses, their function involves Ca2+ channel clustering and synaptic vesicle priming and docking through interactions with Munc13 and RAB3A, respectively. Examining wild-type and RIM2 mutant mice, we show here that the sensory photoreceptor ribbon synapses most likely lack RIM1 and predominantly express RIM2 variants that lack the interaction domain for Munc13. Our findings demonstrate that the photoreceptor-specific RIM variants are not essential for synaptic vesicle priming at photoreceptor ribbon synapses, which represents a fundamental difference between photoreceptor ribbon synapses and conventional chemical synapses with respect to synaptic vesicle priming mechanisms.

Electrophysiological Studies on The Dynamics of Luminance Adaptation in the Mouse Retina.

To date, most studies involving in vivo electroretinography in mice are performed on steady state adapted animals. In this study, we focused on the dynamics of adaptation to high and low light levels in the mouse retina. Two flash electroretinogram (ERG) protocols and one flicker ERG protocol were employed. In the two flash ERG protocols, the animals were adapted to either 25 or 40 cd/m2 white light and ERGs were recorded for up to 15 min of adaptation. Afterwards, flash ERGs were recorded for up to 45 min of dark adaptation. Amplitudes of the flash ERG increased during light adaptation, while implicit times of the different wave components decreased. During subsequent dark adaptation, the amplitudes further increased. The increase in a-to-b-wave ratio indicated adaptational processes at the photoreceptor synapse. In the flicker ERG protocol, the responses to 12 Hz sinusoidal luminance modulation during the adaptation to 25 cd/m2 and a 1 cd/m2 mean luminances were recorded. The amplitudes of the first harmonic components in the flicker protocol decreased during light adaptation but increased during dark adaptation. This is at odds with the changes in the flash ERG, indicating that adaptation may be different in different retinal pathways.