Stiffness of Ca(2+)-pectin gels: combined effects of degree and pattern of methylesterification for various Ca(2+) concentrations.

The influence of the degree and pattern of methylesterification (DM and PM, respectively) on the stiffness of Ca(2+)-pectin gels is extensively examined, at various Ca(2+) concentrations. Accordingly, a highly methyl-esterified pectin was selectively de-esterified using NaOH, plant or fungal pectin methylesterase in order to produce series of pectins with varied pattern and broad ranges of methylesterification. The PM was quantified as absolute degree of blockiness (DB(abs)). Ca(2+)-pectin gels were prepared at various Ca(2+) concentrations. Gel stiffness (G' at 1rad/s) was determined and mapped out as a function of DM, DB(abs) and Ca(2+) concentration. At low Ca(2+) concentrations, G' depends on polymer's DM and DB(abs). At high Ca(2+) concentrations, a master curve is obtained over a wide range of DM, irrespective of DB(abs). Depending on methylesterification pattern, increase of G' is related not only to an increase in the number of junction zones per pectin chain, but also to an increase in the size of junction zones and the number of dimerised chains occurring in the gels. These results provide a detailed insight into the occurrence of junction zones in Ca(2+)-pectin gels.

Comparative study of the cell wall composition of broccoli, carrot, and tomato: structural characterization of the extractable pectins and hemicelluloses.

This study delivers a comparison of the pectic and hemicellulosic cell wall polysaccharides between the commonly used vegetables broccoli (stem and florets separately), carrot, and tomato. Alcohol-insoluble residues were prepared from the plant sources and sequentially extracted with water, cyclohexane-trans-1,2-diamine tetra-acetic acid, sodium carbonate, and potassium hydroxide solutions, to obtain individual fractions, each containing polysaccharides bound to the cell wall in a specific manner. Structural characterization of the polysaccharide fractions was conducted using colorimetric and chromatographic approaches. Sugar ratios were defined to ameliorate data interpretation. These ratios allowed gaining information concerning polysaccharide structure from sugar composition data. Structural analysis of broccoli revealed organ-specific characteristics: the pectin degree of methoxylation (DM) of stem and florets differed, the sugar composition data inferred differences in polymeric composition. On the other hand, the molar mass (MM) distribution profiles of the polysaccharide fractions were virtually identical for both organs. Carrot root displayed a different MM distribution for the polysaccharides solubilized by potassium hydroxide compared to broccoli and tomato, possibly due to the high contribution of branched pectins to this otherwise hemicellulose-enriched fraction. Tomato fruit showed the pectins with the broadest range in DM, the highest MM, the greatest overall linearity and the lowest extent of branching of rhamnogalacturonan I, pointing to particularly long, linear pectins in tomato compared with the other vegetable organs studied, suggesting possible implications toward functional behavior.

Advances in understanding pectin methylesterase inhibitor in kiwi fruit: an immunological approach.

In order to gain insight into the in situ properties and localisation of kiwi pectin methylesterase inhibitor (PMEI), a toolbox of monoclonal antibodies (MA) towards PMEI was developed. Out of a panel of MA generated towards kiwi PMEI, three MA, i.e. MA-KI9A8, MA-KI15C12 and MA-KI15G7, were selected. Thorough characterisation proved that these MA bind specifically to kiwi PMEI and kiwi PMEI in complex with plant PME and recognise a linear epitope on PMEI. Extract screening of green kiwi (Actinidia deliciosa) and gold kiwi (Actinidia chinensis) confirmed the potential use of these MA as probes to screen for PMEI in other sources. Tissue printing revealed the overall presence of PMEI in pericarp and columella of ripe kiwi fruit. Further analysis on the cellular level showed PMEI label concentrated in the middle lamella and in the cell-wall region near the plasmalemma. Intercellular spaces, however, were either completely filled or lined with label. In conclusion, the developed toolbox of antibodies towards PMEI can be used as probes to localise PMEI on different levels, which can be of relevance for plant physiologists as well as food technologists.

Pectin methylesterase and its proteinaceous inhibitor: a review.

Pectin methylesterase (PME) catalyses the demethoxylation of pectin, a major plant cell wall polysaccharide. Through modification of the number and distribution of methyl-esters on the pectin backbone, PME affects the susceptibility of pectin towards subsequent (non-) enzymatic conversion reactions (e.g., pectin depolymerisation) and gel formation, and, hence, its functionality in both plant cell wall and pectin-containing food products. The enzyme plays a key role in vegetative and reproductive plant development in addition to plant-pathogen interactions. In addition, PME action can impact favourably or deleteriously on the structural quality of plant-derived food products. Consequently, PME and also the proteinaceous PME inhibitor (PMEI) found in several plant species and specifically inhibiting plant PMEs are highly relevant for plant biologists as well as for food technologists and are intensively studied in both fields. This review paper provides a structured, comprehensive overview of the knowledge accumulated over the years with regard to PME and PMEI. Attention is paid to both well-established and novel data concerning (i) their occurrence, polymorphism and physicochemical properties, (ii) primary and three-dimensional protein structures, (iii) catalytic and inhibitory activities, (iv) physiological roles in vivo and (v) relevance of (endogenous and exogenous) enzyme and inhibitor in the (food) industry. Remaining research challenges are indicated.

A pectin-methylesterase-inhibitor-based molecular probe for in situ detection of plant pectin methylesterase activity.

In the quest of obtaining a molecular probe for in situ detection of pectin methylesterase (PME), the PME inhibitor (PMEI) was biotinylated and the biotinylated PMEI (bPMEI) was extensively characterized. Reaction conditions for single labeling of the purified PMEI with retention of its inhibitory capacity were identified. High-performance size-exclusion chromatography (HPSEC) analysis revealed that the bPMEI retained its ability to form a complex with plant PME and that it gained the capacity to strongly bind an avidin species. By means of dot-blot binding assays, the ability of the probe to recognize native and high-temperature or high-pressure denatured plant PMEs, coated on an absorptive surface, was investigated and compared to the binding characteristics of recently reported anti-PME monoclonal antibodies. Contrary to the antibodies, bPMEI only detected active PME molecules. Subsequently, both types of probes were used for PME localization in tissue-printing experiments. bPMEI proved its versatility by staining prints of carrot root, broccoli stem, and tomato fruit. Applying the tissue-printing technique on carrot roots after thermal treatment demonstrated the complementarity of bPMEI and anti-PME antibodies, with the former selectively detecting the remaining active PME and the latter staining both native and inactivated PME molecules.

Size exclusion chromatography to gain insight into the complex formation of carrot pectin methylesterase and its inhibitor from kiwi fruit as influenced by thermal and high-pressure processing.

A size exclusion chromatography (HPSEC) method was implemented to study complex formation between carrot pectin methylesterase (PME) and its inhibitor (PMEI) from kiwi fruit in the context of traditional thermal and novel high-pressure processing. Evidence was gained that both thermal and high-pressure treatments of PME give rise to two distinct enzyme subpopulations: a catalytically active population, eluting from the size exclusion column, and an inactive population, aggregated and excluded from the column. When mixing a partly denatured PME sample with a fixed amount of PMEI, a PME-PMEI complex peak was observed on HPSEC, of which the peak area was highly correlated with the residual enzyme activity of the corresponding PME sample. This observation indicates complex formation to be restricted to the active PME fraction. When an equimolar mixture of PME and PMEI was subjected to either a thermal or a high-pressure treatment, marked differences were observed. At elevated temperature, enzyme and inhibitor remained united and aggregated as a whole, thus gradually disappearing from the elution profile. Conversely, elevated pressure caused the dissociation of the PME-PMEI complexes, followed by a separate action of pressure on enzyme and inhibitor. Remarkably, PMEI appeared to be pressure-resistant when compressed at acidic pH (ca. 4).