A Case Study of the Validity of Web-based Visuomotor Rotation Experiments.

Web-based experiments are gaining momentum in motor learning research because of the desire to increase statistical power, decrease overhead for human participant experiments, and utilize a more demographically inclusive sample population. However, there is a vital need to understand the general feasibility and considerations necessary to shift tightly controlled human participant experiments to an online setting. We developed and deployed an online experimental platform modeled after established in-laboratory visuomotor rotation experiments to serve as a case study examining remotely collected data quality for an 80-min experiment. Current online motor learning experiments have thus far not exceeded 60 min, and current online crowdsourced studies have a median duration of approximately 10 min. Thus, the impact of a longer-duration, web-based experiment is unknown. We used our online platform to evaluate perturbation-driven motor adaptation behavior under three rotation sizes (±10°, ±35°, and ±65°) and two sensory uncertainty conditions. We hypothesized that our results would follow predictions by the relevance estimation hypothesis. Remote execution allowed us to double (n = 49) the typical participant population size from similar studies. Subsequently, we performed an in-depth examination of data quality by analyzing single-trial data quality, participant variability, and potential temporal effects across trials. Results replicated in-laboratory findings and provided insight on the effect of induced sensory uncertainty on the relevance estimation hypothesis. Our experiment also highlighted several specific challenges associated with online data collection including potentially smaller effect sizes, higher data variability, and lower recommended experiment duration thresholds. Overall, online paradigms present both opportunities and challenges for future motor learning research.

Regulatory mechanisms of the LBD40 transcription factor in Arabidopsis thaliana somatic embryogenesis.

Somatic embryogenesis (SE) is a process by which an embryo is derived from somatic tissue. Transcription factors (TFs) have been identified that control this process. One such TF that promotes SE is AGAMOUS-like 15 (AGL15). Prior work has shown that AGL15 can both induce and repress gene expression. One way this type of dual function TF works is via protein interactions, so a yeast 2-hybrid (Y2H) screen was undertaken. One intriguing protein with which AGL15 interacted in Y2H was LBD40. LBD40 encodes a LATERAL ORGAN BOUNDARIES (LOB)-domain TF that is unique to plants and is primarily expressed during seed development. Here, we confirm the AGL15-LBD40 interaction by quantitative assays and in planta co-immunoprecipation. We also document a role for LBD40, and the closely related protein LBD41, in supporting SE. To determine downstream genes potentially controlled by LBD40, chromatin immunoprecipitation followed by high throughput sequencing (ChIP-seq) was used. More than 400 binding regions for LBD40 were consistently found genome-wide. To determine genes responsive to LBD40/41 accumulation, RNA-seq analysis of transcriptomes of wild-type control and loss-of-function lbd40/lbd41 was performed. Combining these datasets provides insight into genes directly and indirectly controlled by these LOB domain TFs. The gene ontology (GO) enrichment analysis of these regulated genes showed an overrepresentation of biological processes that are associated with SE, further indicating the importance of LBD40 in SE. This work provides insight into SE, a poorly understood, but essential process to generate transgenic plants to meet agricultural demands or test gene function. This manuscript reports on experiments to understand the role that LDB40, a TF, plays in support of SE by investigating genes directly and indirectly controlled by LBD40 and examining physical and genetic interactions with other TFs active in SE. We uncover targets of LBD40 and an interacting TF of the MADS family and investigate targets involvement in SE.

Use of High Condylectomy and Abdominal Dermis Fat Grafting for an Acromegaly Induced Bilateral Condylar Hyperplasia: A Case Report.

Acromegaly is a disorder characterized by hypersecretion of growth hormone, resulting in morbidities associated with multiple systems. Although most of the morbidities are reversed following control of the underlying disease, it may take several weeks to months for the symptoms to subside. One of the most noticeable effects of acromegaly is changes in facial features and jawbone growth, which can lead to severe pain and discomfort. This report describes a case of a 31-year-old patient with acromegaly induced bilateral condylar hyperplasia who presented with severe temporomandibular joint (TMJ), facial pain, and degenerative changes in TMJ. The patient was treated by trans-sphenoidal excision of pituitary adenoma, medications, and radiotherapy, but his hormonal levels were persistently high. Considering the refractory nature of the disease, the patient underwent bilateral high condylectomy, right articular disc removal, and abdominal dermis fat grafting. The surgery arrested the progressive mandibular enlargement and prevented further degenerative changes of TMJ. Although there was some reduction in TMJ pain, the myogenous pain and headache persisted after surgery. TMJ surgery may be selectively used for refractory cases of acromegaly and those requiring discectomy or total joint replacement. This case report describes the role of TMJ surgery in the management of morbidities and symptoms associated with TMJ in acromegaly until biochemical normalcy is achieved.

Comparison of Transconjunctival versus Subtarsal Approach in Orbital Reconstruction with Respect to Post-Operative Complications and Aesthetic Outcome - A Systematic Review.

Background: Limited evidence exists regarding the optimal surgical approach for orbital floor reconstruction, resulting in uncertainty regarding the choice of approach with the best aesthetic outcomes and lowest post-operative complications. Objectives: This systematic review aimed to compare the transconjunctival and subtarsal approaches (STA) in orbital reconstruction in terms of post-operative complications and aesthetic outcomes. Data Sources: The systematic review was conducted following PRISMA guidelines. PubMed, Google Scholar and Cochrane databases were searched from January 1, 2000 and December 31, 2021. Study Eligibility Criteria: Eligible studies included clinical studies comparing the transconjunctival and STA approaches in orbital reconstruction. The outcome variables assessed were aesthetic scar, hyperaesthesia, entropion, ectropion, enophthalmos, epiphora and other complications. A total of 346 articles were initially identified, and after evaluation using Mendeley software, 292 articles were reviewed. Finally, five articles that met the inclusion criteria were included in this systematic review. Study Appraisal and Results: The transconjunctival approach demonstrated superior aesthetic outcomes compared to the STA approach. However, the STA approach had a lower incidence of post-operative complications, including hyperaesthesia, entropion, ectropion, enophthalmos and epiphora. Limitations: The main limitation of this systematic review is the limited availability of literature directly comparing these two approaches, which precluded the inclusion of randomised controlled trials. Furthermore, the search strategy was restricted to specific databases, namely PubMed/Medline, Google Scholar and the Cochrane Collaboration Library.

Accuracy of Magnetic Resonance Imaging in Detecting Tumor Depth of Invasion in Squamous Cell Carcinoma of the Tongue: A Systematic Review.

Objective: The objective of the study was to detect the accuracy of Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI) in assessing tumor depth of invasion (DOI) in squamous cell carcinoma (SCC) of the tongue. Material and Methods: The electronic search of PubMed (including MEDLINE), COCHRANE CENTRAL and Google Scholar search engine for articles published from January 1, 2000, to September 31, 2021, was conducted and also searched the lists of references of relevant articles and reviews for studies involving patients with squamous cell carcinoma of the tongue. Results: A total of 5362 articles were retrieved in the initial search. After the initial search process, 13 full-text articles were reviewed. Out of these 13 articles, seven met the inclusion criteria and were thus included in this systematic review. Conclusion: The MRI-determined DOI based on T1-weighted sequences increases with increasing T stage. There is the highest correlation between the MRI-derived DOI and the histopathological DOI with increasing T stage. Therefore, MRI provides satisfactory diagnostic accuracy for measuring tumor DOI and, thus, may be considered a predictor of tumor stage.

Effectiveness of Dermis Fat Graft Versus Temporalis Myofascial Flap for Interposition in Temporomandibular Joint Ankylosis: A Systematic Review.

Background: Temporomandibular joint ankylosis is a disabling condition which affects joint movements causing difficulty in speech, mastication and hygiene. Over time various interposition materials like meniscus, muscle, fascia, skin, cartilage, fat, dura and alloplastic materials have been used for the treatment of ankylosis and improve joint functions. Objective: The objective of this systematic review is to evaluate the effectiveness of dermis fat graft and temporalis myofascial flap as an interpositional material in treatment of temporomandibular joint ankylosis and to compare the effectiveness of the two materials. Materials and Methods: PubMed, Google scholar, and Cochrane library search in combination with hand search of relevant journals were conducted published in English from January 2000 to August 2021. Randomized controlled trials, prospective and retrospective cohort studies were included. Outcome measure included improvement in mouth opening. Risk of bias assessment was assessed using Cochrane risk of bias tool and Newcastle-Ottawa scale. Results: A total of 144 articles were found from the primary search which on thorough assessment, duplicate and exclusion removal resulted in 9 cohort studies and 1 randomized controlled trial that fulfilled the inclusion criteria. All the studies included reported significant improvement in mouth opening after interposition of the 2 materials. Four studies compared temporalis myofascial flap with dermis fat graft, 2 studies reported dermis fat graft gives better outcomes, whereas 1 study reported temporalis myofascial flap to be better and 1 study has been inconclusive. Conclusion: Definitive conclusions cannot be drawn as there are number of limitations in the studies included. However a general consensus has been toward dermis fat graft owing to fewer complications. Supplementary Information: The online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1007/s12663-023-01869-9.

Revisiting AGAMOUS-LIKE15, a Key Somatic Embryogenesis Regulator, Using Next Generation Sequencing Analysis in Arabidopsis.

AGAMOUS-like 15 (AGL15) is a member of the MADS-domain transcription factor (TF) family. MADS proteins are named for a conserved domain that was originally from an acronym derived from genes expressed in a variety of eukaryotes (MCM1-AGAMOUS-DEFICIENS-SERUM RESPONSE FACTOR). In plants, this family has expanded greatly, with more than one-hundred members generally found in dicots, and the proteins encoded by these genes have often been associated with developmental identity. AGL15 transcript and protein accumulate primarily in embryos and has been found to promote an important process called plant regeneration via somatic embryogenesis (SE). To understand how this TF performs this function, we have previously used microarray technologies to assess direct and indirect responsive targets of this TF. We have now revisited this question using next generation sequencing (NGS) to both characterize in vivo binding sites for AGL15 as well as response to the accumulation of AGL15. We compared these data to the prior microarray results to evaluate the different platforms. The new NGS data brought to light an interaction with brassinosteroid (BR) hormone signaling that was "missed" in prior Gene Ontology analysis from the microarray studies.

AGL15 Promotion of Somatic Embryogenesis: Role and Molecular Mechanism.

Plants have amazing regenerative properties with single somatic cells, or groups of cells able to give rise to fully formed plants. One means of regeneration is somatic embryogenesis, by which an embryonic structure is formed that "converts" into a plantlet. Somatic embryogenesis has been used as a model for zygotic processes that are buried within layers of maternal tissues. Understanding mechanisms of somatic embryo induction and development are important as a more accessible model for seed development. We rely on seed development not only for most of our caloric intake, but also as a delivery system for engineered crops to meet agricultural challenges. Regeneration of transformed cells is needed for this applied work as well as basic research to understand gene function. Here we focus on a MADS-domain transcription factor, AGAMOUS-Like15 (AGL15) that shows a positive correlation between accumulation levels and capacity for somatic embryogenesis. We relate AGL15 function to other transcription factors, hormones, and epigenetic modifiers involved in somatic embryo development.

The MADS-domain factor AGAMOUS-Like18 promotes somatic embryogenesis.

AGAMOUS-Like 18 (AGL18) is a MADS domain transcription factor (TF) that is structurally related to AGL15. Here we show that, like AGL15, AGL18 can promote somatic embryogenesis (SE) when ectopically expressed in Arabidopsis (Arabidopsis thaliana). Based on loss-of-function mutants, AGL15 and AGL18 have redundant functions in developmental processes such as SE. To understand the nature of this redundancy, we undertook a number of studies to look at the interaction between these factors. We studied the genome-wide direct targets of AGL18 to characterize its roles at the molecular level using chromatin immunoprecipitation (ChIP)-SEQ combined with RNA-SEQ. The results demonstrated that AGL18 binds to thousands of sites in the genome. Comparison of ChIP-SEQ data for AGL15 and AGL18 revealed substantial numbers of genes bound by both AGL15 and AGL18, but there were also differences. Gene ontology analysis revealed that target genes were enriched for seed, embryo, and reproductive development as well as hormone and stress responses. The results also demonstrated that AGL15 and AGL18 interact in a complex regulatory loop, where AGL15 inhibited transcript accumulation of AGL18, while AGL18 increased AGL15 transcript accumulation. Co-immunoprecipitation revealed an interaction between AGL18 and AGL15 in somatic embryo tissue. The binding and expression analyses revealed a complex crosstalk and interactions among embryo TFs and their target genes. In addition, our study also revealed that phosphorylation of AGL18 and AGL15 was crucial for the promotion of SE.

Clinical efficacy of 0.75% ropivacaine vs. 2% lignocaine hydrochloride with adrenaline (1:80,000) in patients undergoing removal of bilateral maxillary third molars: a randomized controlled trial.

BACKGROUND: Lignocaine with adrenaline is routinely used as a local anesthetic for dental procedures. Adrenaline was added to increase the duration of anesthesia. However, epinephrine containing a local anesthetic solution is not recommended in conditions such as advanced cardiovascular diseases and hyperthyroidism. Recently, ropivacaine has gained popularity as a long-acting anesthetic with superior outcomes. The goal of this study was to assess and compare the effectiveness of 0.75% ropivacaine alone and 2% lignocaine with adrenaline (1:80,000) in the removal of bilateral maxillary wisdom teeth using the posterior superior alveolar nerve block technique. METHODS: This was a single-blind, randomized, split-mouth, prospective study assessing 15 systemically sound outpatients who needed bilateral removal of maxillary third molars. We randomly allocated the sides and sequences of ropivacaine and lignocaine with adrenaline administration. We evaluated the efficacy of both anesthetics with regard to the onset of anesthesia, intensity of pain, variation in heart rate, and blood pressure. RESULTS: The onset of anesthesia was faster with lignocaine (138 s) than with ropivacaine (168 s), with insignificant differences (p = 0.001). There was no need for additional local anesthetics in the ropivacaine group, while in the lignocaine with adrenaline group, 2 (13.3%) patients required additional anesthesia. Adequate intraoperative anesthesia was provided by ropivacaine and lignocaine solutions. No significant difference was observed in the perioperative variation in blood pressure and heart rate. CONCLUSION: Ropivacaine (0.75%) is a safe and an adrenaline-free local anesthetic option for posterior superior alveolar nerve block, which provides adequate intraoperative anesthesia and a stable hemodynamic profile for the removal of the maxillary third molar.

The EAR Motif in the Arabidopsis MADS Transcription Factor AGAMOUS-Like 15 Is Not Necessary to Promote Somatic Embryogenesis.

AGAMOUS-like 15 (AGL15) is a member of the MADS domain family of transcription factors (TFs) that can directly induce and repress target gene expression, and for which promotion of somatic embryogenesis (SE) is positively correlated with accumulation. An ethylene-responsive element binding factor-associated amphiphilic repression (EAR) motif of form LxLxL within the carboxyl-terminal domain of AGL15 was shown to be involved in repression of gene expression. Here, we examine whether AGL15's ability to repress gene expression is needed to promote SE. While a form of AGL15 where the LxLxL is changed to AxAxA can still promote SE, another form with a strong transcriptional activator at the carboxy-terminal end, does not promote SE and, in fact, is detrimental to SE development. Select target genes were examined for response to the different forms of AGL15.

To evaluate the Efficacy of Buprenorphine and 2% lignocaine with adrenaline as postoperative analgesia following mandibular third molar surgery: A Comparative Study.

Introduction: Opioid analgesics have an advantage over nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs in that they do not cause direct organ damage. Buprenorphine has an antinociceptive potency approximately 25-50 times greater than that of morphine. Hence, in this study, buprenorphine was added to local anaesthesia in relieving postoperative pain after lower third molar surgery when given as inferior alveolar nerve block. The aim of this study was to evaluate the efficacy of buprenorphine in managing postoperative pain after lower third molar surgery. Materials and Methods: Fifty patients requiring lower third molar surgery were randomly divided into two groups. Group A received buprenorphine added to 2% lignocaine with 1:80,000 adrenaline and Group B received 2% lignocaine with 1:80,000 adrenaline. Parameters assessed were onset of anaesthesia, depth of anaesthesia, intraoperative monitoring of adverse effects, duration of analgesia, and number of analgesics consumed. Statistical analysis was carried out using SPSS software version 21. The data were compared using Student's t-test. The level of significance was set at 0.05. Results: There was a significant difference in onset of anaesthesia between Group A and Group B (P < 0.05). Depth of anaesthesia and duration of analgesia were greater in Group A (56 h 36 min) than Group B (3 h 24 min). Analgesics consumed by Group A (0.9) were significantly less compared to Group B (9.2) and it was highly significant (P = 0.000). Discussion: Buprenorphine when added to local anaesthesia can prolong postoperative analgesia with minimum or no side effects. Hence, buprenorphine can be safely used for lower third molar surgery.

Genetic activity during early plant embryogenesis.

Seeds are essential for human civilization, so understanding the molecular events underpinning seed development and the zygotic embryo it contains is important. In addition, the approach of somatic embryogenesis is a critical propagation and regeneration strategy to increase desirable genotypes, to develop new genetically modified plants to meet agricultural challenges, and at a basic science level, to test gene function. We briefly review some of the transcription factors (TFs) involved in establishing primary and apical meristems during zygotic embryogenesis, as well as TFs necessary and/or sufficient to drive somatic embryo programs. We focus on the model plant Arabidopsis for which many tools are available, and review as well as speculate about comparisons and contrasts between zygotic and somatic embryo processes.

A Study to Evaluate the Efficacy of Honey in the Management of Dry Socket.

BACKGROUND: Natural products have been used for several years in folk medicine. Honey was used to treat infected wounds as long ago as 2000 years before bacteria was discovered to be the cause of infection. It has been reported from various clinical studies on the usage of honey as a dressing for infected wounds that the wound become sterile in 3-6 days. AIM: This study aimed to find out the efficiency of naturally occurring honey in alveolar osteitis. METHODOLOGY: Fifty patients of dry socket were selected from the outpatient department of oral and maxillofacial surgery. A diagnosis of dry socket was made clinically. Honey was used as a dry socket dressing in all these patients. Parameters such as mucosal edges, pain, and formation of granulation tissue were assessed in the postoperative period for a week. STATISTICAL ANALYSIS USED: Analysis was done by paired t-test method using SPSS software version 17. RESULTS: In this study, there was a significant reduction in inflammation, hyperemia, and mucosal edges that resulted in the reduction of pain and discomfort to the patient. There was no side effect of honey observed in our study, so it can be used as an alternative for the management of dry socket. Change in distance between mucosal edges when compared from the day of clinical presentation to 5th day postplacement was statistically significant (P < 0.001). CONCLUSIONS: There are no side effects of honey. Excess use of eugenol can lead to necrosis of bone. Thus, honey can be used as a medicament for the management of dry socket.

Towards mobile gaze-directed beamforming: a novel neuro-technology for hearing loss.

Contemporary hearing aids are markedlylimited in their most important role: improving speech perception in dynamic "cocktail party" environments with multiple, competing talkers. Here we describe an open-source, mobile assistive hearing platform entitled "Cochlearity" which uses eye gaze to guide an acoustic beamformer, so a listener will hear best wherever they look. Cochlearity runs on Android and its eight-channel microphone array can be worn comfortably on the head, e.g. mounted on eyeglasses. In this preliminary report, we examine the efficacy of both a static (delay-and-sum) and an adaptive (MVDR) beamformer in the task of separating an "attended" voice from an "unattended" voice in a two-talker scenario. We show that the different beamformers have the potential to complement each other to improve target speech SNR (signal to noise ratio), across the range of speech power, with tolerably low latency.

Upper Limb Prosthesis Control for High-Level Amputees via Myoelectric Recognition of Leg Gestures.

Recognition of motion intent via surface electromyography (EMG) has become increasingly practical for prosthesis control, but lacking residual muscle sites remains a major obstacle to its use by high-level amputees. Currently, there are few approaches to upper limb prosthesis control for individuals with amputations proximal to the elbow, all of which suffer from one or more of three primary problems: invasiveness, the need for intensive training, and lacking functionality. Using surface EMG sensors placed on the lower leg and a natural mapping between degrees of freedom of the leg and the arm, we tested a noninvasive control approach by which high-level amputees could control prosthetic elbow, wrist, and hand movements with minimal training. In this paper, we used able-bodied subjects to facilitate a direct comparison between control using intact arm and leg muscles. First, we found that foot gestures could be classified offline using time domain features and linear discriminant analysis with accuracy comparable to an equivalent system for recognizing arm movements. Second, we used the target achievement control test to evaluate real-time control performance in three and four degrees of freedom. After approximately 20 min of training, subjects tended to perform the task as well with the leg as with intact arm muscles, and performance overall was comparable to other control methods.

A comparative study to assess the effect of oral alprazolam as premedication on vital parameters of patients during surgical removal of impacted mandibular third molars.

PURPOSE: The aim of this study was to evaluate and monitor the changes in vital parameters of patients during surgical removal of impacted mandibular third molars. METHODS: This was an in vivo study conducted in Oral and Maxillofacial Surgery Department of Terna Dental College. Sixty patients were randomly selected. Thirty patients were given a preoperative single dose of oral tablet alprazolam 0.5 mg as premedication (test group), whereas the other thirty were treated without any premedication (control group). RESULTS: It was found that the mean systolic blood pressure during surgical removal of impacted mandibular third molar was raised in the control group and exhibited minimal fluctuation in the test group. CONCLUSION: The use of tablet alprazolam as premedication before surgical removal of impacted mandibular third molars resulted in stability of vital parameters, secondary to reduced patient anxiety.

Long-Term Training with a Brain-Machine Interface-Based Gait Protocol Induces Partial Neurological Recovery in Paraplegic Patients.

Brain-machine interfaces (BMIs) provide a new assistive strategy aimed at restoring mobility in severely paralyzed patients. Yet, no study in animals or in human subjects has indicated that long-term BMI training could induce any type of clinical recovery. Eight chronic (3-13 years) spinal cord injury (SCI) paraplegics were subjected to long-term training (12 months) with a multi-stage BMI-based gait neurorehabilitation paradigm aimed at restoring locomotion. This paradigm combined intense immersive virtual reality training, enriched visual-tactile feedback, and walking with two EEG-controlled robotic actuators, including a custom-designed lower limb exoskeleton capable of delivering tactile feedback to subjects. Following 12 months of training with this paradigm, all eight patients experienced neurological improvements in somatic sensation (pain localization, fine/crude touch, and proprioceptive sensing) in multiple dermatomes. Patients also regained voluntary motor control in key muscles below the SCI level, as measured by EMGs, resulting in marked improvement in their walking index. As a result, 50% of these patients were upgraded to an incomplete paraplegia classification. Neurological recovery was paralleled by the reemergence of lower limb motor imagery at cortical level. We hypothesize that this unprecedented neurological recovery results from both cortical and spinal cord plasticity triggered by long-term BMI usage.

Effects of muscle fatigue on the usability of a myoelectric human-computer interface.

Electromyography-based human-computer interface development is an active field of research. However, knowledge on the effects of muscle fatigue for specific devices is limited. We have developed a novel myoelectric human-computer interface in which subjects continuously navigate a cursor to targets by manipulating a single surface electromyography (sEMG) signal. Two-dimensional control is achieved through simultaneous adjustments of power in two frequency bands through a series of dynamic low-level muscle contractions. Here, we investigate the potential effects of muscle fatigue during the use of our interface. In the first session, eight subjects completed 300 cursor-to-target trials without breaks; four using a wrist muscle and four using a head muscle. The wrist subjects returned for a second session in which a static fatiguing exercise took place at regular intervals in-between cursor-to-target trials. In the first session we observed no declines in performance as a function of use, even after the long period of use. In the second session, we observed clear changes in cursor trajectories, paired with a target-specific decrease in hit rates.

Learning to modulate the partial powers of a single sEMG power spectrum through a novel human-computer interface.

New human-computer interfaces that use bioelectrical signals as input are allowing study of the flexibility of the human neuromuscular system. We have developed a myoelectric human-computer interface which enables users to navigate a cursor to targets through manipulations of partial powers within a single surface electromyography (sEMG) signal. Users obtain two-dimensional control through simultaneous adjustments of powers in two frequency bands within the sEMG spectrum, creating power profiles corresponding to cursor positions. It is unlikely that these types of bioelectrical manipulations are required during routine muscle contractions. Here, we formally establish the neuromuscular ability to voluntarily modulate single-site sEMG power profiles in a group of naïve subjects under restricted and controlled conditions using a wrist muscle. All subjects used the same pre-selected frequency bands for control and underwent the same training, allowing a description of the average learning progress throughout eight sessions. We show that subjects steadily increased target hit rates from 48% to 71% and exhibited greater control of the cursor's trajectories following practice. Our results point towards an adaptable neuromuscular skill, which may allow humans to utilize single muscle sites as limited general-purpose signal generators. Ultimately, the goal is to translate this neuromuscular ability to practical interfaces for the disabled by using a spared muscle to control external machines.