3D bioprinted silk fibroin hydrogels for tissue engineering.

The development of biocompatible and precisely printable bioink addresses the growing demand for three-dimensional (3D) bioprinting applications in the field of tissue engineering. We developed a methacrylated photocurable silk fibroin (SF) bioink for digital light processing 3D bioprinting to generate structures with high mechanical stability and biocompatibility for tissue engineering applications. Procedure 1 describes the synthesis of photocurable methacrylated SF bioink, which takes 2 weeks to complete. Digital light processing is used to fabricate 3D hydrogels using the bioink (1.5 h), which are characterized in terms of methacrylation, printability, mechanical and rheological properties, and biocompatibility. The physicochemical properties of the bioink can be modulated by varying photopolymerization conditions such as the degree of methacrylation, light intensity, and concentration of the photoinitiator and bioink. The versatile bioink can be used broadly in a range of applications, including nerve tissue engineering through co-polymerization of the bioink with graphene oxide, and for wound healing as a sealant. Procedure 2 outlines how to apply 3D-printed SF hydrogels embedded with chondrocytes and turbinate-derived mesenchymal stem cells in one specific in vivo application, trachea tissue engineering, which takes 2-9 weeks.

A 3D Printable Electroconductive Biocomposite Bioink Based on Silk Fibroin-Conjugated Graphene Oxide.

Reduced graphene oxide (rGO) has wide application as a nanofiller in the fabrication of electroconductive biocomposites due to its exceptional properties. However, the hydrophobicity and chemical stability of rGO limit its ability to be incorporated into precursor polymers for physical mixing during biocomposite fabrication. Moreover, until now, no suitable rGO-combining biomaterials that are stable, soluble, biocompatible, and 3D printable have been developed. In this study, we fabricated digital light processing (DLP) printable bioink (SGOB1), through covalent reduction of graphene oxide (GO) by glycidyl methacrylated silk fibroin (SB). Compositional analyses showed that SGOB1 contains approximately 8.42% GO in its reduced state. Our results also showed that the rGO content of SGOB1 became more thermally stable and highly soluble. SGOB1 hydrogels demonstrated superior mechanical, electroconductive, and neurogenic properties than (SB). Furthermore, the photocurable bioink supported Neuro2a cell proliferation and viability. Therefore, SGOB1 could be a suitable biocomposite for neural tissue engineering.

Silk Fibroin in Wound Healing Process.

Silk fibroin (SF), a natural bioproduct, has been extensively used in biological and biomedical fields including wound healing due to its robust biocompatibility, less immunogenic, non-toxic, non-carcinogenic, and biodegradable properties. SF in different morphologic forms, such as hydrogels, sponges, films, electrospun nanofiber mats, and hydrocolloid dressings, have been successfully used for therapeutic use as wound dressings to induce the healing process. SF has also been known to promote wound healing by increasing the cell growth, proliferation, and migration of different cells types involved in the different phase of wound healing process. In this review, we summarize the different morphologic forms of SF that have been used in the treatment of various wound healing process. We also discuss the effect of SF on various cells types during the SF-induced healing process. Furthermore, we highlight molecular signaling aspects of the SF-induced healing process.

Development of an omentum-cultured oesophageal scaffold reinforced by a 3D-printed ring: feasibility of an in vivo bioreactor.

Current treatments of oesophageal diseases, such as carcinoma, congenital abnormality or trauma, require surgical intervention and oesophageal reconstruction with the stomach, jejunum or colon. However, serious side effects are possible with each treatment option. Despite tissue engineering promising to be an effective regenerative strategy, no functional solution currently exists for oesophageal reconstruction. Here, we developed an omentum-cultured oesophageal scaffold reinforced by a 3D-printed ring. The nano-structured scaffolds were wrapped into the omentum of rats and orthotopically transplanted for the repair of circumferential oesophageal defects two weeks later. The artificial oesophagus exhibited complete healing of the surgically created circumferential defects by the second week. The integration of the omentum-cultured oesophageal scaffold and the regenerative tissue remained intact. Macroscopically, there was no evidence of a fistula, perforation, abscess formation or surrounding soft-tissue necrosis. The omentum-cultured nano-structure scaffold reinforced by a 3D-printed ring is a more practical model with better vascularization for artificial neo-oesophagus reconstruction in a rat model.

Microplasma Jet Arrays as a Therapeutic Choice for Fungal Keratitis.

The clinical impact of microplasma jets on rabbit eyes infected by Candida albicans has been investigated. Arrays of such jets produce low-temperature plasma micro-columns suitable for ophthalmic therapeutics and fungal infections, in particular, and the technology is capable of being scaled to surface areas of at least 10 cm2. Keratitis was induced in the right central corneas of rabbits, whereas the left eyes served as a normal group. The rabbits were divided into the plasma non-treated group (control) and plasma treatment group. Histologic analyses of both groups showed marked reductions in the thickness, angiogenesis, and opacity of all rabbit corneas following plasma treatment. Indeed, for treatment times beyond 14 days, infected eyes exhibited no significant differences from the normal group. Healing of rabbit eyes infected by Candida albicans apparently proceeds by disrupting corneal epithelial proliferation, and by reducing fibrotic changes in the stroma. This study demonstrates that low-temperature plasma jets are remarkably effective in healing Candida albicans-infected corneas, thereby providing a promising medical treatment option for keratitis.

Fabrication and characterization of the porous duck's feet collagen sponge for wound healing applications.

There are several artificial dermis commonly use to cover the wound and promote healing. The major goal of wound management is fast and scarless healing. However, there is no ideal skin substitute, that is effective to accelerate wound healing without scar formation. Artificial dermis substitute also has some drawbacks, such as high cost, insufficient available period and donor pathogen infection. To overcome these problems, we developed duck's feet collagen (DFC) sponge as artificial dermal substitutes for the treatment of full-thickness skin defects. We measured these DFC sponge's comparative characteristics and performances with an artificial dermis Colladerm by carried out SEM-EDX analyze, water-binding abilities and porosity test. Biocompatibility test was also performed using CCK-8 cytotoxicity assay. We also evaluated its wound healing effects for a full-thickness skin wound and compared with Colladerm in a rat model. Histological studies were carried via hematoxylin and eosin and Masson's Trichrome staining. Although the wound healing effect of the DFC sponge was almost similar to that of Colladerm, the DFC sponge did not induce scar formation and wound contracture like Colladerm. We suggest that DFC sponge can be used as an ideal dermal substitute to the treatment of full-thickness skin wound.

NF-κB signaling is key in the wound healing processes of silk fibroin.

Silk fibroin (SF) is a well-studied biomaterial for tissue engineering applications including wound healing. However, the signaling mechanisms underlying the impact of SF on this phenomenon have not been determined. In this study, through microarray analysis, regulatory genes of NF-ĸB signaling were activated in SF-treated NIH3T3 cells along with other genes. Immunoblot analysis confirmed the activation of the NF-ĸB signaling pathway as SF induced protein expression levels of IKKα, IKKß, p65, and the degradation of IκBα. The treatment of NIH3T3 cells with SF also increased the expression of cyclin D1, vimentin, fibronectin, and vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF). The expression of these factors by SF treatment was abrogated when NF-ĸB was inhibited by a pharmacological inhibitor Bay 11-7082. Knockdown of NF-ĸB using siRNA of IKKα and IKKß also inhibited the SF-induced wound healing response of the NIH3T3 cells in a wound scratch assay. Collectively, these results indicated that SF-induced wound healing through the canonical NF-κB signaling pathway via regulation of the expression of cyclin D1, vimentin, fibronectin, and VEGF by NIH3T3 cells. Using an in vivo study with a partial-thickness excision wound in rats we demonstrated that SF-induced wound healing via NF-κB regulated proteins including cyclin D1, fibronectin, and VEGF. The in vitro and in vivo data suggested that SF induced wound healing via modulation of NF-ĸB signaling regulated proteins. STATEMENT OF SIGNIFICANCE: Silk fibroin has been effectively used as a dressing for wound treatment for more than a century. However, mechanistic insight into the basis for wound healing via silk fibroin has not been elucidated. Here we report a key mechanism involved in silk fibroin induced wound healing both in vitro and in vivo. Using genetic- and protein-level analyses, NF-κB signaling was found to regulate silk fibroin-induced wound healing by modulating target proteins. Thus, the NF-κB signaling pathway may be utilized as a therapeutic target during the formulation of silk fibroin-based biomaterials for wound healing and tissue engineering.

Novel fabrication method of the peritoneal dialysis filter using silk fibroin with urease fixation system.

During the last decade, there has been a great advance in the kidney dialysis system by wearable artificial kidney (WAK) system for end-stage renal disease patients. Uremic solute removal and water regeneration system are the most prerequisite for WAK to work properly. In this study, we designed a filtering membrane system by using immobilized urease silk fibroin filter and evaluated its comparative effectiveness with a PVDF filtering system in peritoneal dialysate regeneration system by urea removal efficacy. We evaluated this membrane's characteristic and performances by conducting SEM-EDX analyze, water-binding abilities and porosity test, removal abilities of urea, cytotoxicity assay and enzyme activity assay. Under the condition for optimization of urease, the percentage removal of urea was about 40% and 60% in 50 mg/dL urea solution by urease immobilized PVDF and silk fibroin scaffolds, respectively. The batch experimental result showed that immobilized filter removed more than 50% of urea in 50 mg/dL urea solution. In addition silk fibroin with urease filter removed 90 percent of urea in the peritoneal dialysate after 24 h filtration. We suggest that silk fibroin with urease fixation filter can be used more effectively for peritoneal dialysate regeneration system, which have hydrophilic property and prolonged enzyme activity. © 2016 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. J Biomed Mater Res Part B: Appl Biomater, 105B: 2136-2144, 2017.

Three dimensional poly(ε-caprolactone) and silk fibroin nanocomposite fibrous matrix for artificial dermis.

Ideal dermal substitutes should have comparable physicochemical and biological properties to the natural skin tissue. In this study, we report a novel strategy to "engineer" controlled 3D nanocomposite fibrous matrix of poly(ε-caprolactone) (PCL) and silk fibroin (SF) for an artificial dermis application. Using a custom-designed cold-plate electrospinning and automatic magnet agitation system, up to 6mm of the thickness was achieved resulting from the accumulation of ice crystal layers on the PCL nanofibers surface-modified with the SF particles. The sacrificed ice crystals induced interconnected macro-pores ranging from tens to hundreds µm. The agitation system introduced uniform distribution of the SF protein within/on the nanofibers, preventing the particles from precipitation and agglomeration. NIH 3T3 fibroblasts proliferated in vitro on the PCL and PCL/SF scaffolds for 7days, but there was no statistical difference between the groups. Conversely, In vivo rat model studies revealed that the wound healing rate and collagen deposition increased with the SF content within the nanocomposites. The unique 3D construct with the PCL/SF nanocomposite fibers provided desirable spatial cues, surface topography, and surface chemistry for the native cells to infiltrate into the scaffolds. The wound healing potential of the nanocomposites was comparable to the commercial Matriderm® artificial dermis.

Three-dimensional electrospun silk-fibroin nanofiber for skin tissue engineering.

Tissue-engineered skin substitutes may offer an effective therapeutic option for the treatment of patients with skin damages. In this study, a novel three-dimensional (3D) scaffold composed of electrospun silk fibroin (SF) nanofiber was fabricated using electrospinning with the addition of NaCl crystals. It has well known that the electrospun SF nanofibers were excellent scaffold for tissue. However, it is generally difficult for cells to infiltrate the electrospun silk fibroin due to its small pore size. To resolve this problem, we dropped the NaCl crystals above the rotating collector, which become incorporated into the nanofibers. Three methods (freeze-drying, salt-leaching, and electrospinning with NaCl) for fabrication of SF scaffolds were compared to the difference of their characteristics using scanning electron microscopy (SEM), Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR), mechanical strength, porosity, swelling abilities, and cell proliferation. Additionally, using air-liquid culture system, keratinocytes were co-cultured with fibroblasts in each type of SF scaffolds to construct an artificial bilayer skin in vitro. In our experimental results, histologic findings in only electrospun SF scaffolds showed more proliferation of fibroblasts in deep layer and more differentiation of keratinocytes in superficial layer. The present study suggests that 3D electrospun SF scaffolds might be a suitable for skin tissue engineering.

Fabrication of 3D porous SF/ß-TCP hybrid scaffolds for bone tissue reconstruction.

Bio-ceramic is a biomaterial actively studied in the field of bone tissue engineering. But, only certain ceramic materials can resolve the corrosion problem and possess the biological affinity of conventional metal biomaterials. Therefore, the recent development of composites of hybrid composites and polymers has been widely studied. In this study, we aimed to select the best scaffold of silk fibroin and ß-TCP hybrid for bone tissue engineering. We fabricated three groups of scaffold such as SF (silk fibroin scaffold), GS (silk fibroin/small granule size of ß-TCP scaffold) and GM (silk fibroin/medium granule size of ß-TCP scaffold), and we compared the characteristics of each group. During characterization of the scaffold, we used scanning electron microscopy (SEM) and a Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR) for structural analysis. We compared the physiological properties of the scaffold regarding the swelling ratio, water uptake and porosity. To evaluate the mechanical properties, we examined the compressive strength of the scaffold. During in vitro testing, we evaluated cell attachment and cell proliferation (CCK-8). Finally, we confirmed in vivo new bone regeneration from the implanted scaffolds using histological staining and micro-CT. From these evaluations, the fabricated scaffold demonstrated high porosity with good inter-pore connectivity, showed good biocompatibility and high compressive strength and modulus. In particular, the present study indicates that the GM scaffold using ß-TCP accelerates new bone regeneration of implanted scaffolds. Accordingly, our scaffold is expected to act a useful application in the field of bone tissue engineering. © 2016 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. J Biomed Mater Res Part A: 104A: 1779-1787, 2016.

Wound healing effect of electrospun silk fibroin nanomatrix in burn-model.

Silk fibroin has recently become an important biomaterial for tissue engineering application. In this study, silk fibroin nanomatrix was fabricated by electrospinning and evaluated as wound dressing material in a burn rat model. The wound size reduction, histological examination, and the quantification of transforming growth factor TGF-ß1 and interleukin IL-1α, 6, and 10 were measured to evaluate the healing effects. The silk fibroin nanomatrix treatment exhibited effective performance in decreasing the wound size and epithelialization. Histological finding also revealed that the deposition of collagen in the dermis was organized by covering the wound area in the silk fibroin nanomatrix treated group. The expression level of pro-inflammatory cytokine (IL-1α) was significantly reduced in the injured skin following the silk fibroin nanomatrix treatment compared to the medical gauze (control) at 7 days after burn. Also, the expression level of TGF-ß1 in the wound treated with silk fibroin nanomatrix peaked 21-days post-treatment whereas expression level of TGF-ß1 was highest at day 7 in the gauze treated group. In conclusion, this data demonstrates that silk fibroin nanomatrix enhances the burn wound healing, suggesting it is a good candidate for burn wound treatment.

Fabrication of duck's feet collagen-silk hybrid biomaterial for tissue engineering.

Collagen constituting the extracellular matrix has been widely used as biocompatible material for human use. In this study, we have selected duck's feet for extracting collagen. A simple method not utilizing harsh chemical had been employed to extract collagen from duck's feet. We fabricated duck's feet collagen/silk hybrid scaffold for the purpose of modifying the degradation rate of duck's feet collagen. This study suggests that extracted collagen from duck's feet is biocompatible and resembles collagen extracted from porcine which is commercially used. Duck's feet collagen is also economically feasible and it could therefore be a good candidate as a tissue engineering material. Further, addition of silk to fabricate a duck's feet collagen/silk hybrid scaffold could enhance the biostability of duck's feet collagen scaffold. Duck's feet collagen/silk scaffold increased the cell viability compared to silk alone. Animal studies also showed that duck's feet collagen/silk scaffold was more biocompatible than silk alone and more biostable than duck's feet or porcine collagen alone. Additionally, the results revealed that duck's feet collagen/silk hybrid scaffold had high porosity, cell infiltration and proliferation. We suggest that duck's feet collagen/silk hybrid scaffold could be used as a dermal substitution for full thickness skin defects.

Osteoinductive silk fibroin/titanium dioxide/hydroxyapatite hybrid scaffold for bone tissue engineering.

The present study demonstrated the fabrication that incorporation of titanium isopropoxide (TiO2) and hydroxyapatite (HA) nanoparticles into the silk fibroin (SF) scaffolds. In this process, we prepared TiO2 nanoparticles using sol-gel synthesis and the porous structure was developed by salt-leaching process. Homogeneous distribution of TiO2 and HA nanoparticles were confirmed by images of VP-FE-SEM and those equipped with energy dispersive X-ray spectrometer. Structural characteristics of the porous SF/TiO2/HA hybrid scaffold were also determined using FTIR analysis and X-ray diffractometer. In this study, the porous SF/TiO2/HA hybrid scaffold showed similar porosity, enhanced mechanical property, but decreased water binding abilities, compared with the porous SF scaffold. For evaluation of the osteogenic differentiation of rat bone marrow mesenchymal stem cells, alkaline phosphatase activity and osteogenic gene expression were employed. Our results revealed that the porous SF/TiO2/HA hybrid scaffold had improved osteoinductivity compared with the porous SF scaffold. These results suggest that the osteogenic property as well as mechanical property of the porous SF/TiO2/HA hybrid scaffold could be better than the porous SF scaffold. Therefore, the porous SF/TiO2/HA hybrid scaffold may be a good promising biomaterial for bone tissue engineering application.

Hybrid scaffolds based on PLGA and silk for bone tissue engineering.

Porous silk scaffolds, which are considered to be natural polymers, cannot be used alone because they have a long degradation rate, which makes it difficult for them to be replaced by the surrounding tissue. Scaffolds composed of synthetic polymers, such as PLGA, have a short degradation rate, lack hydrophilicity and their release of toxic by-products makes them difficult to use. The present investigations aimed to study hybrid scaffolds fabricated from PLGA, silk and hydroxyapatite nanoparticles (Hap NPs) for optimized bone tissue engineering. The results from variable-pressure field emission scanning electron microscopy (VP-FE-SEM), equipped with EDS, confirmed that the fabricated scaffolds had a porous architecture, and the location of each component present in the scaffolds was examined. Contact angle measurements confirmed that the introduction of silk and HAp NPs helped to change the hydrophobic nature of PLGA to hydrophilic, which is the main constraint for PLGA used as a biomaterial. Thermo-gravimetric analysis (TGA) and FT-IR spectroscopy confirmed thermal decomposition and different vibrations caused in functional groups of compounds used to fabricate the scaffolds, which reflected improvement in their mechanical properties. After culturing osteoblasts for 1, 7 and 14 days in the presence of scaffolds, their viability was checked by MTT assay. The fluorescent microscopy results revealed that the introduction of silk and HAp NPs had a favourable impact on the infiltration of osteoblasts. In vivo experiments were conducted by implanting scaffolds in rat calvariae for 4 weeks. Histological examinations and micro-CT scans from these experiments revealed beneficial attributes offered by silk fibroin and HAp NPs to PLGA-based scaffolds for bone induction.

An experimental burn wound-healing study of non-thermal atmospheric pressure microplasma jet arrays.

In contrast with a thermal plasma surgical instrument based on coagulative and ablative properties, low-temperature (non-thermal) non-equilibrium plasmas are known for novel medicinal effects on exposed tissue while minimizing undesirable tissue damage. In this study we demonstrated that arrays of non-thermal microplasma jet devices fabricated from a transparent polymer can efficiently inactivate fungi (Candida albicans) as well as bacteria (Escherichia coli), both in vitro and in vivo, and that this leads to a significant wound-healing effect. Microplasma jet arrays offer several advantages over conventional single-jet devices, including superior packing density, inherent scalability for larger treatment areas, unprecedented material flexibility in a plasma jet device, and the selective generation of medically relevant reactive species at higher plasma densities. The therapeutic effects of our multi-jet device were verified on second-degree burns in animal rat models. Reduction of the wound area and the histology of the wound after treatment have been investigated, and expression of interleukin (IL)-1α, -6 and -10 was verified to evaluate the healing effects. The consistent effectiveness of non-thermal plasma treatment has been observed especially in decreasing wound size and promoting re-epithelialization through collagen arrangement and the regulation of expression of inflammatory genes.

Fabrication of silk fibroin film using centrifugal casting technique for corneal tissue engineering.

Films prepared from silk fibroin have shown potential as biomaterials in tissue engineering applications for the eye. Here, we present a novel process for fabrication of silk fibroin films for corneal application. In this work, fabrication of silk fibroin films was simply achieved by centrifugal force. In contrast to the conventional dry casting method, we carried out the new process in a centrifuge with a rotating speed of 4000 rpm, where centrifugal force was imposed on an aluminum tube containing silk fibroin solution. In the present study, we also compared the surface roughness, mechanical properties, transparency, and cell proliferation between centrifugal and dry casting method. In terms of surface morphology, films fabricated by the centrifugal casting have less surface roughness than those by the dry casting. For elasticity and transparency, silk fibroin films obtained from the centrifugal casting had favorable results compared with those prepared by dry casting. Furthermore, primary human corneal keratocytes grew better in films prepared by the centrifugal casting. Therefore, our results suggest that this new fabrication process for silk fibroin films offers important potential benefits for corneal tissue regeneration.

Fabrication and characterization of hydrocolloid dressing with silk fibroin nanoparticles for wound healing.

Hydrocolloid dressings have been developed for many types of wound healing. In particular, dressing is a critical component in the successful recover of burn injuries, which causes a great number of people to not only suffer from physical but also psychological and economic anguish each year. Additionally, silk fibroin is the safest material for tissue engineering due to biocompatibility. In this study, we fabricated hydrocolloid dressings incorporating silk fibroin nanoparticles to enhance the efficacy of hydrocolloid dressing and then use this silk fibroin nanoparticle hydrocolloid dressing (SFNHD) in animal models to treat burn wounds. The structures and properties of SFNHD were characterized using tensile strength and Cell Counting Kit-8 assay. The results indicated the structural stability and the cellular biocompatibility of the hydrocolloid dressing suggesting that SFNHD can be applied to the treatment of wounds. To demonstrate the capacity of a silk fibroin hydrocolloid dressing to treat burn wounds, we compared SFNHD to gauze and Neoderm®, a commercially available dressing. This study clearly demonstrated accelerated wound healing with greater wound structural integrity and minimal wound size after treatment with SFNHD. These observations indicate that SFNHD may be an improvement upon current standard dressings such as Gauze and Neoderm® for burn wounds.

Fabrication of 3D porous silk scaffolds by particulate (salt/sucrose) leaching for bone tissue reconstruction.

Silk fibroin is a biomaterial being actively studied in the field of bone tissue engineering. In this study, we aimed to select the best strategy for bone reconstruction on scaffolds by changing various conditions. We compared the characteristics of each scaffold via structural analysis using scanning electron microscopy (SEM), Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR), the swelling ratio, water uptake, porosity, compressive strength, cell infiltration and cell viability (CCK-8). The scaffolds had high porosity with good inter pore connectivity and showed high compressive strength and modulus. In addition, to confirm bone reconstruction, animal studies were conducted in which samples were implanted in rat calvaria and investigated by micro-CT scans. In conclusion, the presented study indicates that using sucrose produces scaffolds showing better pore interconnectivity and cell infiltration than scaffolds made by using a salt process. In addition, in vivo experiments showed that hydroxyapatite accelerates bone reconstruction on implanted scaffolds. Accordingly, our scaffold will be expected to have a useful application in bone reconstruction.