Global dataset of soil organic carbon in tidal marshes.

Tidal marshes store large amounts of organic carbon in their soils. Field data quantifying soil organic carbon (SOC) stocks provide an important resource for researchers, natural resource managers, and policy-makers working towards the protection, restoration, and valuation of these ecosystems. We collated a global dataset of tidal marsh soil organic carbon (MarSOC) from 99 studies that includes location, soil depth, site name, dry bulk density, SOC, and/or soil organic matter (SOM). The MarSOC dataset includes 17,454 data points from 2,329 unique locations, and 29 countries. We generated a general transfer function for the conversion of SOM to SOC. Using this data we estimated a median (± median absolute deviation) value of 79.2 ± 38.1 Mg SOC ha-1 in the top 30 cm and 231 ± 134 Mg SOC ha-1 in the top 1 m of tidal marsh soils globally. This data can serve as a basis for future work, and may contribute to incorporation of tidal marsh ecosystems into climate change mitigation and adaptation strategies and policies.

Drivers of variability in Blue Carbon stocks and burial rates across European estuarine habitats.

The implementation of climate change mitigation strategies based on the conservation and restoration of Blue Carbon ecosystems requires a deep understanding of the magnitude and variability in organic carbon (Corg) storage across and within these ecosystems. This study explored the variability in soil Corg stocks and burial rates across and within intertidal estuarine habitats of the Atlantic European coast and its relation to biotic and abiotic drivers. A total of 136 soil cores were collected across saltmarshes located at different tidal zones (high marsh, N = 45; low marsh, N = 30), seagrass meadows (N = 17) and tidal flats (N = 44), and from the inner to the outer sections of five estuaries characterized by different basin land uses. Soil Corg stocks were higher in high-marsh communities (65 ± 3 Mg ha-1) than in low-marsh communities (38 ± 3 Mg ha-1), seagrass meadows (40 ± 5 Mg ha-1) and unvegetated tidal flats (46 ± 3 Mg ha-1) whereas Corg burial rates also tended to be higher in high marshes (62 ± 13 g m-2 y-1) compared to low marshes (43 ± 15 g m-2 y-1) and tidal flats (35 ± 9 g m-2 y-1). Soil Corg stocks and burial rates decreased from inner to outer estuarine sections in most estuaries reflecting the decrease in the river influence towards the estuary mouth. Higher soil Corg stocks were related to higher content of silt and clay and higher proportion of forest and natural land within the river basin, pointing at new opportunities for protecting coastal natural carbon sinks based on the conservation and restoration of upland ecosystems. Our study contributes to the global inventory of Blue Carbon by adding data from unexplored regions and habitats in Europe, and by identifying drivers of variability across and within estuaries.

Characterization of Gelidium corneum's (Florideophyceae, Rhodophyta) vegetative propagation process under increasing levels of temperature and irradiance.

Climate change is affecting Gelidium corneum (Hudson) J.V. Lamouroux fields in the Bay of Biscay by reducing its cover and biomass. Understanding those changes requires a good characterization of the responses of this species to different stressors, particularly the effects on key processes such as the vegetative propagation. Here, we aimed to characterize the interactive effect of temperature (15, 20 and 25 °C) and irradiance (5-10, 55-60 and 95-100 µmol*m-2*s-1) on two phases of the vegetative propagation process: the re-attachment capacity and the survival of re-attached fragments. The study findings revealed significant effects of both temperature and irradiance in the re-attachment capacity of the species, with higher rates of attachment registered at 20 °C and 5-10 µmol*m-2*s-1 after 10, 20 and 30 days of culture. However, the interaction effects were not significant at any time interval. At higher or lower temperatures and increasing irradiances, the attachment capacity was reduced. On the other hand, irradiance was demonstrated to be the main factor controlling the survival of rhizoids. In fact, higher levels of irradiance generated severe damage on rhizoids, and thus, conditioned the development of new plants. According to this, it seems clear that the vegetative propagation process of this species is expected to become more vulnerable as both variables are expected to rise due to climate change. An increased vulnerability of this species may have several implications from an ecological and economic perspective, so we encourage to continue exploring the factors and processes controlling its distribution in order to adopt better management actions in the future.

Coastal engineering infrastructure impacts Blue Carbon habitats distribution and ecosystem functions.

Intertidal estuarine habitats (e.g., saltmarshes and tidal flats) provide important ecosystem services to society, including coastal protection, food provision and Corg sequestration. Yet, estuaries and estuarine habitats have been subjected to intense human pressure, such as land-use change and artificialization of the shoreline to support economic activities and uses. Construction of engineering infrastructures (e.g., piers, bridges) in these areas alters estuary-wide hydromorphological conditions and thus sedimentation patterns at the estuarine scale, which are key drivers of habitats distribution and ecosystem structure, processes and functions. Most of the research on the impact of civil engineering structures on coastal habitats has focused on the biological communities that colonize them or the bottoms where they are placed, whereas their indirect impacts on adjacent habitats has been largely unexplored. Understanding the influence of man-made infrastructures on the distribution of estuarine habitats and functions is critical, particularly considering that shoreline armoring is expected to increase as a way to protect coastal areas from hazards derived from climate change. Shifts in habitat distribution and functions occur in several years or decades and relating them with the occurrence of past historical events is challenging when no monitoring data is available. By examining historical aerial photographs and different biogeochemical properties along a saltmarsh soil record, this study demonstrates that the construction of an infrastructure (i.e. bridge) caused a rapid transformation (~ 30 years) of a bare sandflat into a high marsh community and to significant changes in sediment biogeochemical properties, including the decrease in sediment accretion rate and Corg burial rates since then. This study contributes to increase the knowledge on the impact that the construction in coastal areas of civil engineering infrastructures can cause in intertidal habitats distribution and the ecological functions they provide for climate change adaption and mitigation.

Changes in the distribution of intertidal macroalgae along a longitudinal gradient in the northern coast of Spain.

The distribution of macroalgal species along the north and northwest coast of the Iberian Peninsula is in a period of change, during which mostly cold-temperate species have decreased in cover and others have disappeared. On the other hand, other species have increased in abundance. These shifts could be related with the modification of environmental factors that determine species distribution caused by climate change. A standardised sampling methodology was applied at 18 sites along the north coast of Spain in 2011 and 2017. The relationship between the coverage of intertidal macroalgal species and abiotic variables (sea surface temperature, air temperature and significant wave height) was analysed in order to detect possible changes in the historical data. Results suggest a modification in the communities in the inner part of the Bay of Biscay, mostly related to an increase in water and air temperature. Each seaweed group (warm-temperate, cold-temperate, opportunistic and exotic species) showed a different pattern of modification. Coralline algae, Bifurcaria bifurcata and Cystoseira baccata have increased, which may be related to the warming trend. The exotic species Asparagopsis armata has also increased, particularly in the Lower Rias. On the other hand, there was a drastic decrease of the cold-temperate species Himanthalia elongata. Data obtained support the relationship of macroalgae species communities and environment in the context of climate change in this particular area.

Assessing the risk of marine litter accumulation in estuarine habitats.

Rivers and estuaries are among the main entrances of litter to the marine environment. This study characterizes marine litter deposits in three estuaries of the Gulf of Biscay, assesses its potential impact in estuarine habitats based on expert elucidation, and develops a methodology to estimate the associated environmental risk. Litter was ubiquitous in the estuaries of study, mostly represented by plastic debris and sanitary waste. High marsh communities acted as litter traps, showing significantly higher litter densities than adjacent habitats. The expected impact was valued to be low but different across habitats and possible litter-habitat interactions. The estimated risk was low but different across habitats and estuaries, determined by the probability of encounter and the expected impact. This study contributes to increase the scarce knowledge available on the threat that marine litter poses in estuarine environments and presents a methodology to help identify those habitats under a higher risk.

A methodology to assess the probability of marine litter accumulation in estuaries.

In this study, a general methodology that is based on numerical models and statistical analysis is developed to assist in the definition of marine litter cleanup and mitigation strategies at an estuarine scale. The methodology includes four main steps: k-means clustering to identify representative metocean scenarios; dynamic downscaling to obtain high-resolution drivers with which to force a transport model; numerical transport modelling to generate a database of potential litter trajectories; and a statistical analysis of this database to obtain probabilities of litter accumulation. The efficacy of this methodology is demonstrated by its application to an estuary along the northern coast of Spain by comparing the numerical results with field data. The necessary criteria to ensure its applicability to any other estuary were provided. As the main conclusion, the developed methodology successfully assesses the litter distribution in estuaries with minimum computational effort.

Climate change induced range shifts in seaweeds distributions in Europe.

There are evidences of how climate change is affecting seaweeds distribution and the ecosystems services they provide. Therefore, it is necessary to consider these impacts when managing marine areas. One of the most applied tools in recent years to deal with this are species distribution models, however there are still some challenges to solve, such as the inclusion of hydrodynamic predictors and the application of effective, transferable and user-oriented methodologies. Five species (Saccorhiza polyschides, Gelidium spinosum, Sargassum muticum, Pelvetia canaliculata and Cystoseira baccata) in Europe and 15 variables were considered. Nine of them were projected to the RCPs 4.5 and 8.5 for the mid-term (2040-2069) and the long term (2070-2099). Algorithms for each species were applied to generate models that were assessed by comparison of probabilities and observations (area under the curve, true skill statistics, Boyce index, sensitivity, correct classification rate), niches overlap (Schoener's D, Hellinger's I), geographical similarity (interquartile range) and ecological realism. Models built demonstrated very good predictive accuracy and sensitivity, without overfitting risk. A medium overlap in the historical and RCPs environmental conditions were obtained, therefore the models can be considered transferable and results accurate because only some isolated points were detected as outliers, corresponding to low probabilities. The areas of S. polyschides and G. spinosum have been identified to be dramatically reduced, meanwhile S. muticum and C. baccata were predicted to expand their range. P. canaliculata was expected to keep its sites of presence but with a decrease in its probability of occurrence. For all species it was remarkable the importance of hydrodynamic variables and parameters representing extreme conditions. Spatially predictions of the potential species and areas at risk are decisive for defining management strategies and resource allocation. The performance and usefulness of the approach applied in this study have been demonstrated for algae with different ecological requirements (from upper littoral to subtidal) and distributional patterns (native and invasive), therefore results can be used by marine planners with different goals: marine protected areas designation, monitoring efforts guiding, invasions risk assessment or aquaculture facilities zonation.

Mapping the environmental risk assessment of marinas on water quality: The Atlas of the Spanish coast.

Recreational sailing sector has an impact on water quality in marinas. This study proposes a standard procedure to assess the environmental risk of marinas on water quality. Risk is assessed through integrating environmental pressures, environmental conditions and societal responses (i.e. the Pressure-State-Response model). Pressures are estimated considering the main driving forces: navigation, port, dredging and external activities. State is estimated through combining the susceptibility, the ecological value and naturalness. Response is estimated through environmental management instruments and adopted measures. Managers and authorities can hierarchically classify marinas from a multi-scale spatial framework. This tool is particularly powerful for generating local, regional or national atlases to prioritize environmental planning actions. The method is applied to 320 marinas along the Spanish coast. This implementation confirms the usefulness, versatility and adaptability of this procedure as a tool for the environmental management of marinas.

Ecological typologies of large areas. An application in the Mediterranean Sea.

One approach to identifying and mapping the state of marine biophysical conditions is the identification of large-scale ecological units for which conditions are similar and the strategies of management may also be similar. Because biological processes are difficult to directly record over large areas, abiotic characteristics are used as surrogate parameters. In this work, the Mediterranean Sea was classified into homogeneous spatial areas based on abiotic variables. Eight parameters were selected based on salinity, sea surface temperature, photosynthetically active radiation, sea-wave heights and depth variables. The parameters were gathered in grid points of 0.5° spatial resolution in the open sea and 0.125° in coastal areas. The typologies were obtained by data mining the eight parameters throughout the Mediterranean and combining two clustering techniques: self-organizing maps and the k-means algorithm. The result is a division of the Mediterranean Sea into seven typologies. For these typologies, the classification recognizes differences in temperature, salinity and radiation. In addition, it separates coastal from deep areas. The influence of river discharges and the entrance of water from other seas are also reflected. These results are consistent with the ecological requirements of the five studied seagrasses (Posidonia oceanica, Zostera marina, Zostera noltei, Cymodocea nodosa, Halophila stipulacea), supporting the suitability of the resulting classification and the proposed methodology. The approach thus provides a tool for the sustainable management of large marine areas and the ability to address not only present threats but also future conditions, such as climate change.

Long-term analysis of Zostera noltei: A retrospective approach for understanding seagrasses' dynamics.

Long-term studies are necessary to establish trends and to understand seagrasses' spatial and temporal dynamic. Nevertheless, this type of research is scarce, as the required databases are often unavailable. The objectives of this study are to create a method for mapping the seagrass Zostera noltei using remote sensing techniques, and to apply it to the characterization of the meadows' extension trend and the potential drivers of change. A time series was created using a novel method based on remote sensing techniques that proved to be adequate for mapping the seagrass in the emerged intertidal. The meadows seem to have a decreasing trend between 1984 and the early 2000s, followed by an increasing tendency that represents a recovery in the extension area of the species. This 30-year analysis demonstrated the Z. noltei's recovery in the study site, similar to that in other estuaries nearby and contrary to the worldwide decreasing behavior of seagrasses.

Atlas of susceptibility to pollution in marinas. Application to the Spanish coast.

An atlas of susceptibility to pollution of 320 Spanish marinas is provided. Susceptibility is assessed through a simple, fast and low cost empirical method estimating the flushing capacity of marinas. The Complexity Tidal Range Index (CTRI) was selected among eleven empirical methods. The CTRI method was selected by means of statistical analyses because: it contributes to explain the system's variance; it is highly correlated to numerical model results; and, it is sensitive to marinas' location and typology. The process of implementation to the Spanish coast confirmed its usefulness, versatility and adaptability as a tool for the environmental management of marinas worldwide. The atlas of susceptibility, assessed through CTRI values, is an appropriate instrument to prioritize environmental and planning strategies at a regional scale.

Are environmental risk estimations linked to the actual environmental impact? Application to an oil handling facility (NE Spain).

The environmental risk analysis of aquatic systems includes the evaluation of the likelihood that adverse ecological effects may occur as a result of exposure to one or more stressors. In harbor areas, pollution is provided by a complex mixture of substances with different levels of toxicity, persistence and bioaccumulation, which complicates the hazards characterization and their multiple effects. A study of the relationship between the environmental impact and the environmental risk assessment at a specific isolated oil handling facility was undertaken. The environmental risk of the oil handling facility, considering the consequences of specific pollutants, was estimated and the associated environmental impact was quantified based on a 'weights of evidence' approach. The contamination quantified at the potentially affected area around the monobuoy of Tarragona has proved to be related with environmental risk estimations but the lines of evidence obtained do not allow us to assert that the activity developed at this facility has an associated environmental impact.

Prioritization maps: The integration of environmental risks to manage water quality in harbor areas.

A method to integrate the environmental risk of the multiple effects from uses and activities developed in harbor areas is presented. Consequences are considered as the effects derived from all identified hazards. Vulnerability is expressed in terms of functional relations between environmental susceptibility against a disturbance and the state of protection of the receptors at risk. Consequences and vulnerability are integrated obtaining a spatial variation of risk: prioritization maps. The maps are developed by 4 main stages: (1) environmental hazard identification; (2) estimation of the consequences; (3) estimation of vulnerability and, (4) integration of environmental risks. To adapt prioritization maps to the peculiarities of the study area, three different methods for the integration of the effects are proposed: average-value, worst-case and weighted methods. The implementation to a real case (Tarragona harbor, NE Spain) confirms its usefulness as a risk analysis tool to communicate and support water quality management in harbors.

Environmental risk assessment of water quality in harbor areas: a new methodology applied to European ports.

This work presents a standard and unified procedure for assessment of environmental risks at the contaminant source level in port aquatic systems. Using this method, port managers and local authorities will be able to hierarchically classify environmental hazards and proceed with the most suitable management actions. This procedure combines rigorously selected parameters and indicators to estimate the environmental risk of each contaminant source based on its probability, consequences and vulnerability. The spatio-temporal variability of multiple stressors (agents) and receptors (endpoints) is taken into account to provide accurate estimations for application of precisely defined measures. The developed methodology is tested on a wide range of different scenarios via application in six European ports. The validation process confirms its usefulness, versatility and adaptability as a management tool for port water quality in Europe and worldwide.

The Quality of Rocky Bottoms index (CFR): a validated method for the assessment of macroalgae according to the European Water Framework Directive.

The Quality of Rocky Bottoms index (CFR by its Spanish acronym) is a multimetric method used for the assessment of macroalgae communities in accordance to the European Water Framework Directive. In order to improve the precision and accuracy of the assessments, the index was adjusted using a continuous scoring system. The index was tested at 184 intertidal and 57 subtidal stations located in the Atlantic coasts of Spain, Portugal and France. The anthropogenic pressure level of the stations was estimated according to a semiquantitative scale based on the type of discharge, distance to the contaminant source and its magnitude. 70.5% of the stations were correctly assigned to their expected quality and only 5.8% were critically misclassified. The linear regression and weighted kappa analyses between the pressure levels and the CFR results showed highly significant correlations and very good agreement levels both at intertidal and subtidal areas.

Assessment of susceptibility to pollution in littoral waters using the concept of recovery time.

Susceptibility to pollution can be related to the flushing capacity of aquatic systems. Transport time scales constitute a useful tool for representing the water exchange and transport processes. A new transport time scale, recovery time, and a methodology to estimate it by means of numerical models is hereby developed. Recovery time, calculated in Gijon, Santander and Tarragona harbours, is significantly related to physical, chemical and biological water quality indicators. Susceptibility, assessed through recovery time values, provides spatial patterns of expected flushing capacity, being sensitive to physical and hydrodynamic characteristics. The developed method is appropriate to estimate recovery time and assess susceptibility against pollution in littoral waters having great potential to be applied to different disciplines. Recovery time could be used in littoral waters as a surrogate of water quality indicators, to establish efficient monitoring programs, to define and characterize modified water bodies or to improve the design of marine infrastructures.

Transport time scales as physical descriptors to characterize heavily modified water bodies near ports in coastal zones.

Physical descriptors that characterize Heavily Modified Water Bodies (HMWB) based on the presence of ports should assess the degree of water exchange. The main goal of this study is to determine the optimal procedure for estimating Transport Time Scales (TTS) as physical descriptors in order to characterize and manage HMWB near ports in coastal zones. Flushing Time (FT) and Residence Time (RT), using different approaches-analytical and exponential function methods-and different hydrodynamic scenarios, were computed using numerical models. El Musel (Port of Gijon) was selected to test different transport time scales (FT and RT), methods (analytical and exponential function methods) and hydrodynamic conditions (wind and tidal forcings). FT, estimated by the exponential function method while taking into account a real tidal wave and a mean annual regime of wind as hydrodynamic forcing, was determined to be the optimal physical descriptor to characterize HMWB.

Assessment of the effects of a marine urban outfall discharge on caged mussels using chemical and biomarker analysis.

To assess the presence of endocrine disruptors in treated marine outfall discharges and their possible effects, mussels (Mytilus galloprovincialis) were caged in the environmental mixing zone of the outfall of the Santander sanitation system and in one control area. After 30, 60 and 90 days, samples were collected to perform chemical analyses (metals, anionic surfactants, alkylphenols, bisphenol A, phthalates and estrogenic hormones), biomarkers of general stress (lysosomal membrane stability-LMS, histopathology) and biomarkers of endocrine disruption (vitellogenin-like proteins and gonad index). There were no significant differences between outfall and control sites on contaminant levels, except for 4-tert-octylphenol which was higher in the outfall site. Bacteriological counts were higher in the outfall area. No relevant differences in biomarkers were detected between treated and control mussels. A significant reduction in LMS occurred in both groups after 90 days caging, indicating a stress situation possibly related to caging or to post-spawning reproductive state.

Coastal outfalls, a sustainable alternative for improving water quality in north-east Atlantic estuaries.

The city of Santander ceased the discharge of sewage effluents into the bay of Santander in June, 2001 and began discharging at a site 2.4 km offshore in the nearby coastal area (Virgen del Mar, Bay of Biscay) at a water depth of about 40 m. The present study investigates the effects of the new outfall discharges on the water quality of the high-energy coastal area and the recovery of the perturbed temperate estuarine area now only affected by combined sewer overflows (CSOs). Nutrients, phytoplankton biomass and urban pollution indicators were analysed. No significant spatial or temporal change in water quality variables was found in the coastal area around the outfall. No signs of nutrification or increases in chlorophyll-a were observed throughout the study period, although a slight increase in phosphates, suspended solids and turbidity were observed two years after the relocation of the discharge. These changes were not attributed to outfall discharge but to a regional increase also observed at control stations and nearby coastal areas. Considerable reductions in indicators of urban discharges were observed in the estuary after the relocation of discharges, even at stations located around CSOs. Results from this study support the efficiency of ecological quality-driven designs of sanitation systems, which are used as management tools for sensitive and environmentally valuable coastal ecosystems in the north-east Atlantic.