Formation of XPhos-Ligated Palladium(0) Complexes and Reactivity in Oxidative Additions.

Understanding the nature of the intermediate species operating within a palladium catalytic cycle is crucial for developing efficient cross-coupling reactions. Even though the XPhos/Pd(OAc)2 catalytic system has found numerous applications, the nature of the active catalytic species remains elusive. A Pd0 complex ligated to XPhos has been detected and characterized in situ for the first time using cyclic voltammetry and NMR techniques. In the presence of XPhos, Pd(OAc)2 initially associates with the ligand to form a complex in solution, which has been characterized as PdII (OAc)2 (XPhos). This PdII center is then reduced to the Pd0 (XPhos)2 species by an intramolecular process. This study also sheds light on the formation of PdI -PdI dimers. Finally, a kinetic study probes a dissociative mechanism for the oxidative addition with aryl halides involving Pd0 (XPhos) as the reactive species in equilibrium with the unreactive Pd0 (XPhos)2 . Remarkably, the reportedly poorly reactive PhCl reacts at room temperature in the oxidative addition, which confirms the crucial role of the XPhos ligand in the activation of aryl chlorides.

Cyclometalated N-heterocyclic carbene iridium(iii) complexes with naphthalimide chromophores: a novel class of phosphorescent heteroleptic compounds.

A series of cyclometalated N-heterocyclic carbene complexes of the general formula [Ir(C^N)2(C^C:)] has been prepared. Two sets of compounds were designed, those where (C^C:) represents a bidentate naphthalimide-substituted imidazolylidene ligand and (C^N) = ppy (3a), F2ppy (4a), bzq (5a) and those where (C^C:) represents a naphthalimide-substituted benzimidazolylidene ligand and (C^N) = ppy (3b), F2ppy (4b), bzq (5b). The naphthalimide-imidazole and naphthalimide-benzimidazole ligands 1a,b and the related imidazolium and benzimidazolium salts 2a,b were also prepared and fully characterized. The N-heterocyclic carbene Ir(iii) complexes have been characterized by NMR spectroscopy, cyclic voltammetry and elemental analysis. Moreover, the molecular structures of one imidazolium salt and four Ir(iii) complexes were determined by single-crystal X-ray diffraction. The structures provide us with valuable information, most notably the orientation of the naphthalimide chromophore with respect to the N-heterocyclic carbene moiety. All compounds are luminescent at room temperature and in a frozen solvent at 77 K, exhibiting a broad emission band that extends beyond 700 nm. The presence of the naphthalimide moiety changes the character of the lowest excited state from 3MLCT to 3LC, as corroborated by DFT and TD-DFT calculations. Remarkably, replacing imidazole with a benzimidazole unit improves the quantum yields of these compounds by decreasing the knr values which is an important feature for optimized emission performance. These studies provide valuable insights about a novel class of N-heterocyclic carbene-based luminescent complexes containing organic chromophores and affording metal complexes emitting across the red-NIR range.

On the Triple Role of Fluoride Ions in Palladium-Catalyzed Stille Reactions.

The mechanism of Stille reactions (cross-coupling of ArX with Ar'SnnBu3 ) performed in the presence of fluoride ions is established. A triple role for fluoride ions is identified from kinetic data on the rate of the reactions of trans-[ArPdBr(PPh3 )2 ] (Ar=Ph, p-(CN)C6 H4 ) with Ar'SnBu3 (Ar'=2-thiophenyl) in the presence of fluoride ions. Fluoride ions promote the rate-determining transmetallation by formation of trans-[ArPdF(PPh3 )2 ], which reacts with Ar'SnBu3 (Ar'=Ph, 2-thiophenyl) at room temperature, in contrast to trans-[ArPdBr(PPh3 )2 ], which is unreactive. However, the concentration ratio [F(-) ]/[Ar'SnBu3 ] must not be too high, because of the formation of unreactive anionic stannate [Ar'Sn(F)Bu3 ](-) . This rationalises the two kinetically antagonistic roles exerted by the fluoride ions that are observed experimentally, and is found to be in agreement with the kinetic law. In addition, fluoride ions promote reductive elimination from trans-[ArPdAr'(PPh3 )2 ] generated in the transmetallation step.

Oxidative Addition of Haloheteroarenes to Palladium(0): Concerted versus SN Ar-Type Mechanism.

The kinetics of the oxidative additions of haloheteroarenes HetX (X=I, Br, Cl) to [Pd(0) (PPh3 )2 ] (generated from [Pd(0) (PPh3 )4 ]) have been investigated in THF and DMF and the rate constants have been determined. In contrast to the generally accepted concerted mechanism, Hammett plots obtained for substituted 2-halopyridines and solvent effects reveal a reaction mechanism dependent on the halide X of HetX: an unprecedented SN Ar-type mechanism for X=Br or Cl and a classical concerted mechanism for X=I. These results are supported by DFT studies.

A unique class of neutral cyclometalated platinum(II) complexes with π-bonded benzenedithiolate: synthesis, molecular structures and tuning of luminescence properties.

A unique class of neutral cyclometalated platinum(ii) complexes with π-bonded benzenedithiolate are reported including two X-ray molecular structures. To the best of our knowledge these are the first structures to be reported for cyclometalated platinum complexes with a benzenedithiolate ligand. All of the complexes are luminescent in fluid solution at room temperature and in frozen solvent glasses at 77 K and their emission properties can be tuned through ligand variation.

Evidence for the interaction between (t)BuOK and 1,10-phenanthroline to form the 1,10-phenanthroline radical anion: a key step for the activation of aryl bromides by electron transfer.

Electron paramagnetic resonance and electrochemistry are used to evidence the interaction between 1,10-phenanthroline (Phen) and KO(t)Bu to form the 1,10-phenanthroline radical anion, Phen˙(-), and the (t)BuO˙ radical via an inner-sphere electron transfer. In addition, electrochemistry is also used to explain the formation of aryl radicals from aryl bromides via outer-sphere electron transfer from the key intermediate Phen˙(-).

Three roles for the fluoride ion in palladium-catalyzed Hiyama reactions: transmetalation of [ArPdFL2] by Ar'Si(OR)3.

From the kinetic data on the transmetalation/reductive elimination in fluoride-promoted Hiyama reactions, obtained using electrochemical techniques, it has been established that fluoride ions play three roles. F(-) reacts with trans-[ArPdBrL2] (L=PPh3) to form trans-[ArPdFL2], which reacts with Ar'Si(OMe)3 in the rate-determining transmetalation, whereas trans-[ArPdBrL2] does not react with Ar'Si(OMe)3. F(-) reacts with Ar'Si(OMe)3 to deliver the unreactive silicate Ar'SiF(OMe)3(-), thus leading to two antagonistic kinetic effects. In addition, F(-) catalyzes the reductive elimination from intermediate trans-[ArPdAr'L2].

Activation of aryl and heteroaryl halides by an iron(I) complex generated in the reduction of [Fe(acac)3] by PhMgBr: electron transfer versus oxidative addition.

The mechanism of the reactions of aryl/heteroaryl halides with aryl Grignard reagents catalyzed by [Fe(III)(acac)3] (acac=acetylacetonate) has been investigated. It is shown that in the presence of excess PhMgBr, [Fe(III)(acac)3] affords two reduced complexes: [PhFe(II)(acac)(thf)n] (n=1 or 2) (characterized by (1)H NMR and cyclic voltammetry) and [PhFe(I)(acac)(thf)](-) (characterized by cyclic voltammetry, (1)H NMR, EPR and DFT). Whereas [PhFe(II)(acac)(thf)n] does not react with any of the investigated aryl or heteroaryl halides, the Fe(I) complex [PhFe(I)(acac)(thf)](-) reacts with ArX (Ar=Ph, 4-tolyl; X=I, Br) through an inner-sphere monoelectronic reduction (promoted by halogen bonding) to afford the corresponding arene ArH together with the Grignard homocoupling product PhPh. In contrast, [PhFe(I)(acac)(thf)](-) reacts with a heteroaryl chloride (2-chloropyridine) to afford the cross-coupling product (2-phenylpyridine) through an oxidative addition/reductive elimination sequence. The mechanism of the reaction of [PhFe(I)(acac)(thf)](-) with the aryl and heteroaryl halides has been explored on the basis of DFT calculations.

Oxidative addition to palladium(0) diphosphine complexes: observations of mechanistic complexity with iodobenzene as reactant.

Using a combination of electrochemical and NMR techniques, the oxidative addition of PhX to three closely related bis-diphosphine P2Pd(0) complexes, where the steric bulk of just one substituent was varied, has been analysed quantitatively. For the complex derived from MetBu2P, a rapid reaction ensued with PhI following an associative mechanism, and data was also obtained by cyclic voltammetry for PhOTs, PhBr and PhCl, revealing distinct relative reactivities from the related (PCx3)2Pd complex (Cx = cyclohexyl) previously studied. The corresponding EttBu2P complex reacted more slowly with PhI and was studied by NMR spectroscopy. The reaction course indicated a mixture of pathways, with contribution from a component that was [PhI] independent. For the CxtBu2P complex, reaction was again monitored by NMR spectroscopy, and was even slower. At high PhI concentrations reaction was predominantly linear in [PhI], but at lower concentrations the [PhI] independent pathway was again observed, and an accelerating influence of the reaction product was observed over the concentration range. The NMR spectra of the EttBu2P and CxtBu2P complexes conducted in C6D6 shows some line broadening that was augmented on addition of PhI. NMR experiments carried out in parallel show that there is rapid ligand exchange between free phosphine and the Pd2Pd complex and also a slow ligand crossover between different P2Pd complexes. DFT calculations were carried out to further test the feasibility of C6D6 involvement in the oxidative addition process, and located Van der Waals complexes for association of the P2Pd(0) complexes with either PhI or benzene. PhI or solvent-assisted pathways for ligand loss are both lower in energy than direct ligand dissociation. Taken all together, these results provide a consistent explanation for the surprising complexity of an apparently simple reaction step. The clear dividing line between reactions that give a di- or monophosphine palladium complex after oxidative addition clarifies the participation of the ligand in coupling catalysis.

Mechanism of palladium-catalyzed Suzuki-Miyaura reactions: multiple and antagonistic roles of anionic "bases" and their countercations.

In Suzuki-Miyaura reactions, anionic bases F(-) and OH(-) (used as is or generated from CO3(2-) in water) play multiple antagonistic roles. Two are positive: 1) formation of trans-[Pd(Ar)F(L)2] or trans-[Pd(Ar)-(L)2(OH)] (L = PPh3) that react with Ar'B(OH)2 in the rate-determining step (rds) transmetallation and 2) catalysis of the reductive elimination from intermediate trans-[Pd(Ar)(Ar')(L)2]. Two roles are negative: 1) formation of unreactive arylborates (or fluoroborates) and 2) complexation of the OH group of [Pd(Ar)(L)2(OH)] by the countercation of the base (Na(+), Cs(+), K(+)).

Near-infrared room temperature emission from a novel class of Ru(II) heteroleptic complexes with quinonoid organometallic linker.

A novel class of luminescent octahedral ruthenium complexes 2-4 displaying a π-bonded quinonoid ligand is described. Remarkably, the presence of this organometallic ligand affects their UV-vis properties and transforms them into panchromatic absorbers. Furthermore, it turns on room temperature NIR emissions.

Autocatalytic intermolecular versus intramolecular deprotonation in C-H bond activation of functionalized arenes by ruthenium(II) or palladium(II) complexes.

The activation of the C-H bond of 1-phenylpyrazole (2) and 2-phenyl-2-oxazoline (3) by [Ru(OAc)2(p-cymene)] is an autocatalytic process catalyzed by the co-product HOAc. The reactions are indeed faster in the presence of acetic acid and water but slower in the presence of a base K2CO3. A reactivity order is established in the absence of additives: 2-phenylpyridine>2-phenyl-2-oxazoline>1-phenylpyrazole (at RT). The accelerating effect of added acetate ions reveals an intermolecular deprotonation after C-H bond activation by a cationic Ru(II) center (SE 3 mechanism). The reactions of 1-phenylpyrazole and 2-phenyl-2-oxazoline first lead to the neutral cyclometalated complexes A2 and A3 ligated by one acetate. The latter dissociate to the cationic complexes B2(+) and B3(+), respectively, and acetate. A slow incorporation of one or two D atoms into 2, 3, and 2-phenylpyridine (1) was observed in the presence of deuterated acetic acid. The "reversibility" of the C-H bond activation/deprotonation takes place from the cationic complexes Bn(+) (n=1-3). They are also involved in oxidative additions to PhI, which are rate-determining and lead to the mono- and bis-phenylated products at high temperatures. A general mechanism is proposed for the arylation of arenes 1-3 catalyzed by [Ru(OAc)2(p-cymene)]. In contrast, the reaction of Pd(OAc)2 with 2-phenylpyridine (1), is much faster: Pd(OAc)2>[Ru(OAc)2(p-cymene)]. Since the kinetics is not affected by added acetates, the reaction proceeds through a CMD mechanism assisted by a ligated acetate (intramolecular process) and is irreversible. A bis-cyclometalated Pd(II)^Pd(II) dimer D'1 is formed whose bielectronic electrochemical oxidation leads to a [Pd(III)^Pd(III)](2+) dimer, in agreement with the result of a reported chemical oxidation used in arene functionalizations catalyzed by Pd(OAc)2.

Discriminating role of bases in diketonate copper(I)-catalyzed C-O couplings: phenol versus diarylether.

The mechanism of the formation of phenol from PhI and CsOH catalysed by copper(i) ligated to the 1,3-diketonate ket'(-) generated from 2,2,6,6-tetramethyl-3,5-heptanedione (TMHD) has been investigated by DFT calculations associated with experimental techniques: cyclic voltammetry, (1)H NMR, and ESI-MS. Weak halogen bonding between the negatively charged O atom of [(ket')Cu(I)-OH](-) and PhI leads to an oxidative addition that gives (ket')Cu(III)(Ph)-OH. The latter undergoes a faster reductive elimination that delivers (ket')Cu(I)(PhOH) from which PhOH is released. PhOPh is formed in the presence of an extra base Cs2CO3. The two catalytic cycles of formation of PhOH or PhOPh are branched at the level of (ket')Cu(I)(PhOH) that can either afford PhOH in the presence of CsOH or be deprotonated by Cs2CO3 to generate [(ket')Cu(I)-OPh](-). The oxidative addition of [(ket')Cu(I)-OPh](-) to PhI leads to (ket')Cu(III)(Ph)-OPh involved in a faster reductive elimination that delivers PhOPh and the Cu(I) catalyst.

π-Bonded dithiolene complexes: synthesis, molecular structures, electrochemical behavior, and density functional theory calculations.

The synthesis and X-ray molecular structure of the first metal-stabilized o-dithiobenzoquinone [Cp*Ir-o-(η(4)-C(6)H(4)S(2))] (2) are described. The presence of the metal stabilizes this elusive intermediate by π coordination and increases the nucleophilic character of the sulfur atoms. Indeed, the π-bonded dithiolene complex 2 was found to react with the organometallic solvated species [Cp*M(acetone)(3)][OTf](2) (M = Rh, Ir) to give a unique class of binuclear dithiolene compounds [Cp*Ir(C(6)H(4)S(2))MCp*][OTf](2) [M = Rh (3), Ir (4)] in which the elusive dithiolene η-C(6)H(4)S(2) acts as a bridging ligand toward the two Cp*M moieties. The electrochemical behavior of all complexes was investigated and provided us with valuable information about their redox properties. Density functional theory (DFT) calculations on the π-bonded dithiobenzoquinone ligand and related bimetallic systems show that the presence of Cp*M at the arene system of the dithiolene ligand increases the stability compared to the known monomeric species [Cp*Ir-o-(C(6)H(4)S(2)-κ(2)-S,S)] and enables these complexes Cp*Ir(C(6)H(4)S(2))MCp*][OTf](2) (3 and 4) to act as electron reservoirs. Time-dependent DFT calculations also predict the qualitative trends in the experimental UV-vis spectra and indicate that the strongest transitions arise from ligand-metal charge transfer involving primarily the HOMO-1 and LUMO. All of these compounds were fully characterized and identified by single-crystal X-ray crystallography. These results illustrate the first examples describing the coordination chemistry of the elusive o-dithiobenzoquinone to yield bimetallic complexes with an o-benzodithiolene ligand. These compounds might have important applications in the area of molecular materials.

Iron-catalyzed reductive radical cyclization of organic halides in the presence of NaBH4: evidence of an active hydrido iron(I) catalyst.

Iron made'em: iron(II) complexes such as FeCl(2) and [FeCl(2)(dppe)(2) ] (dppe=1,2-bisdiphenylphosphinoethane) are efficient precatalysts for the radical cyclization of unsaturated iodides and bromides in the presence of NaBH(4). Cyclic voltammetry studies suggests that the reaction occurs through a radical mechanism via an anionic hydrido iron(I) species as the key intermediate for the activation of the substrates by electron transfer.

Mechanistic origin of antagonist effects of usual anionic bases (OH-, CO3(2-)) as modulated by their countercations (Na+, Cs+, K+) in palladium-catalyzed Suzuki-Miyaura reactions.

The mechanism of the reaction of trans-ArPdBrL(2) (Ar=p-Z-C(6)H(4), Z=CN, H; L=PPh(3)) with Ar'B(OH)(2) (Ar'=p-Z'-C(6)H(4), Z'=H, CN, MeO), which is a key step in the Suzuki-Miyaura process, has been established in N,N-dimethylformamide (DMF) with two bases, acetate (nBu(4)NOAc) or carbonate (Cs(2)CO(3)) and compared with that of hydroxide (nBu(4)NOH), reported in our previous work. As anionic bases are inevitably introduced with a countercation M(+) (e.g., M(+)OH(-)), the role of cations in the transmetalation/reductive elimination has been first investigated. Cations M(+) (Na(+), Cs(+), K(+)) are not innocent since they induce an unexpected decelerating effect in the transmetalation via their complexation to the OH ligand in the reactive ArPd(OH)L(2), partly inhibiting its transmetalation with Ar'B(OH)(2). A decreasing reactivity order is observed when M(+) is associated with OH(-): nBu(4)N(+) > K(+) > Cs(+) > Na(+). Acetates lead to the formation of trans-ArPd(OAc)L(2), which does not undergo transmetalation with Ar'B(OH)(2). This explains why acetates are not used as bases in Suzuki-Miyaura reactions that involve Ar'B(OH)(2). Carbonates (Cs(2)CO(3)) give rise to slower reactions than those performed from nBu(4)NOH at the same concentration, even if the reactions are accelerated in the presence of water due to the generation of OH(-). The mechanism of the reaction with carbonates is then similar to that established for nBu(4)NOH, involving ArPd(OH)L(2) in the transmetalation with Ar'B(OH)(2). Due to the low concentration of OH(-) generated from CO(3)(2-) in water, both transmetalation and reductive elimination result slower than those performed from nBu(4)NOH at equal concentrations as Cs(2)CO(3). Therefore, the overall reactivity is finely tuned by the concentration of the common base OH(-) and the ratio [OH(-)]/[Ar'B(OH)(2)]. Hence, the anionic base (pure OH(-) or OH(-) generated from CO(3)(2-)) associated with its countercation (Na(+), Cs(+), K(+)) plays four antagonist kinetic roles: acceleration of the transmetalation by formation of the reactive ArPd(OH)L(2), acceleration of the reductive elimination, deceleration of the transmetalation by formation of unreactive Ar'B(OH)(3)(-) and by complexation of ArPd(OH)L(2) by M(+).

Autocatalysis for C-H bond activation by ruthenium(II) complexes in catalytic arylation of functional arenes.

Kinetic data for the C-H bond activation of 2-phenylpyridine by Ru(II)(carboxylate)(2)(p-cymene) I (acetate) and I' (pivalate) are available for the first time. They reveal an irreversible autocatalytic process catalyzed by the coproduct HOAc or HOPiv (acetonitrile, 27 °C). The overall reaction is indeed accelerated by the carboxylic acid coproduct and water. It is retarded by a base, in agreement with an autocatalytic process induced by HOAc or HOPiv that favors the dissociation of one carboxylate ligand from I and I' and consequently the ensuing complexation of 2-phenylpyridine (2-PhPy). The C-H bond activation initially delivers Ru(O(2)CR)(o-C(6)H(4)-Py)(p-cymene) A or A', containing one carboxylate ligand (OAc or OPiv, respectively). The overall reaction is accelerated by added acetates. Consequently, C-H bond activation (faster for acetate I than for pivalate I') proceeds via an intermolecular deprotonation of the C-H bond of the ligated 2-PhPy by the acetate or pivalate anion released from I or I', respectively. The 18e complexes A and A' easily dissociate, by displacement of the carboxylate by the solvent (also favored by the carboxylic acid), to give the same cationic complex B(+) {[Ru(o-C(6)H(4)-Py)(p-cymene)(MeCN)](+)}. Complex B(+) is reactive toward oxidative addition of phenyl iodide, leading to the diphenylated 2-pyridylbenzene.

Kinetic data for the transmetalation/reductive elimination in palladium-catalyzed Suzuki-Miyaura reactions: unexpected triple role of hydroxide ions used as base.

The mechanism of the reaction of trans-[ArPdX(PPh(3))(2)] (Ar=p-Z-C(6)H(4); Z=CN, F, H; X=I, Br, Cl) with Ar'B(OH)(2) (Ar'=p-Z'-C(6)H(4); Z'=CN, H, OMe) has been established in DMF in the presence of the base OH(-) in the context of real palladium-catalyzed Suzuki-Miyaura reactions. The formation of the cross-coupling product ArAr' and [Pd(0)(PPh(3))(3)] has been followed through the application of electrochemical techniques. Kinetic data have been obtained for the first time, with determination of the observed rate constant, k(obs), of the overall reaction. trans-[ArPdX(PPh(3))(2)] is not reactive in the absence of the base. The base OH(-) plays three roles. It favors the reaction: 1) by formation of trans-[ArPd(OH)(PPh(3))(2)], a key complex which, in contrast to trans-[ArPdX(PPh(3))(2)], reacts with Ar'B(OH)(2) (rate-determining transmetalation), and 2) by unexpected promotion of the reductive elimination from the intermediate trans-[ArPdAr'(PPh(3))(2)], which generates ArAr' and a Pd(0) species. Conversely, the base OH(-) disfavors the reaction by formation of the unreactive anionic Ar'B(OH)(3)(-). As a consequence of these antagonistic effects of OH(-), the overall reactivity is controlled by the concentration of OH(-) and passes through a maximum as the concentration of OH(-) is increased. Therefore, the base favors the rate-determining transmetalation and unexpectedly also the reductive elimination.