Rikkunshito prevents paclitaxel-induced peripheral neuropathy through the suppression of the nuclear factor kappa B (NFκB) phosphorylation in spinal cord of mice.

Peripheral neuropathy is the major side effect caused by paclitaxel, a microtubule-binding antineoplastic drug. Paclitaxel-induced peripheral neuropathy causes a long-term negative impact on the patient's quality of life. However, the mechanism underlying paclitaxel-induced peripheral neuropathy is still unknown, and there is no established treatment. Ghrelin is known to attenuate thermal hyperalgesia and mechanical allodynia in chronic constriction injury of the sciatic nerve, and inhibit the activation of nuclear factor kappa B (NFκB) in the spinal dorsal horn. Rikkunshito (RKT), a kampo medicine, increases the secretion of ghrelin in rodents and humans. Thus, RKT may attenuate paclitaxel-induced peripheral neuropathy by inhibiting phosphorylated NFκB (pNFκB) in the spinal cord. We found that paclitaxel dose-dependently induced mechanical hyperalgesia in mice. Paclitaxel increased the protein levels of spinal pNFκB, but not those of spinal NFκB. NFκB inhibitor attenuated paclitaxel-induced mechanical hyperalgesia suggesting that the activation of NFκB mediates paclitaxel-induced hyperalgesia. RKT dose-dependently attenuated paclitaxel-induced mechanical hyperalgesia. Ghrelin receptor antagonist reversed the RKT-induced attenuation of paclitaxel-induced mechanical hyperalgesia. RKT inhibited the paclitaxel-induced increase in the protein levels of spinal pNFκB. Taken together, the present study indicates that RKT exerts an antihyperalgesic effect in paclitaxel-induced neuropathic pain by suppressing the activation of spinal NFκB.

Cannabinoid functions in the amygdala contribute to conditioned fear memory in streptozotocin-induced diabetic mice: Interaction with glutamatergic functions.

The role of cannabinoid systems in conditioned fear memory was investigated in streptozotocin (STZ)-induced diabetic mice. The cannabinoid receptor agonist WIN-55,212-2 (1mg/kg, i.p.), when injected into normal mice after conditioning, significantly prolonged the duration of freezing behavior. This effect was significantly inhibited by the cannabinoid CB1 receptor antagonist AM 251 (3mg/kg, s.c.), but not by the cannabinoid CB2 receptor antagonist AM 630 (1mg/kg, s.c.). The duration of freezing in STZ-induced diabetic mice was significantly longer than that in non-diabetic mice. The injection of WIN-55,212-2 (1mg/kg, i.p.) after conditioning significantly prolonged the duration of freezing in non-diabetic mice, but not in STZ-induced diabetic mice. In contrast, the injection of AM 251 (3mg/kg, s.c.) after conditioning significantly shortened the duration of freezing in STZ-induced diabetic mice, but not in non-diabetic mice. The injection of AM 251 (3mg/kg, s.c.) before conditioning or before testing did not significantly affect the duration of freezing in STZ-induced diabetic mice. The protein levels of cannabinoid CB1 receptors in the amygdala were increased in STZ-induced diabetic mice. In contrast, the protein levels of cannabinoid CB2 receptors and diacylglycerol lipase α, the enzyme that synthesizes endocannabinoid 2-arachidonoylglycerol, in the amygdala did not differ between non-diabetic and STZ-induced diabetic mice. None of these proteins in the hippocampus was different between non-diabetic and STZ-induced diabetic mice. The injection of AM 251 (50 ng/side) into the basolateral amygdala significantly inhibited the duration of freezing in STZ-induced diabetic mice. Since endocannabinoid is controlled by glutamatergic function, we further examined the role of glutamatergic function in the increased fear memory in STZ-induced diabetic mice. The amounts of glutamine and glutamic acid in the amygdala of STZ-induced diabetic mice were significantly increased compared to those in non-diabetic mice. The AMPA receptor antagonist NBQX (4 0ng/side), when injected into the basolateral amygdala, significantly inhibited the duration of freezing in STZ-induced diabetic mice. Finally, AMPA (40 ng, i.c.v.) significantly prolonged the duration of freezing in normal mice, and this effect was inhibited by AM 251 (3mg/kg, s.c.). These results suggest that cannabinoid functions in the amygdala are increased in diabetic mice and that enhanced glutamatergic function in the amygdala of diabetic mice activates the endocannabinoid system, which enhances fear memory via cannabinoid CB1 receptors.

Olanzapine-induced hyperglycemia: possible involvement of histaminergic, dopaminergic and adrenergic functions in the central nervous system.

BACKGROUND/AIMS: Atypical antipsychotic drugs such as olanzapine are known to induce metabolic disturbance. We have already shown that olanzapine induces hepatic glucose production through the activation of hypothalamic adenosine 5'-monophosphate-activated protein kinase (AMPK). However, it is unclear how olanzapine activates hypothalamic AMPK. Since olanzapine is known to antagonize several receptors, including histaminergic, muscarinic, serotonergic, dopaminergic and adrenergic receptors, we examined the effect of each receptor antagonist on blood glucose levels in mice. Moreover, we also investigated whether these antagonists activate hypothalamic AMPK. METHODS: Male 6-week-old ICR mice were used. Blood glucose levels were determined by the glucose oxidase method. AMPK expression was measured by Western blotting. RESULTS: Central administration of olanzapine (5-15 nmol i.c.v.) dose-dependently increased blood glucose levels in mice, whereas olanzapine did not change blood insulin levels. Histamine H1 receptor antagonist chlorpheniramine (1-10 µg i.c.v.), dopamine D2 receptor antagonist L-sulpiride (1-10 µg i.c.v.) and α1-adrenoceptor antagonist prazosin (0.3-3 µg i.c.v.) also significantly increased blood glucose levels in mice. In contrast, the blood glucose levels were not affected by muscarinic M1 receptor antagonist dicyclomine (1-10 µg i.c.v.) or serotonin 5-HT2A receptor antagonist M100907 (1-10 ng i.c.v.). Olanzapine-induced hyperglycemia was inhibited by the AMPK inhibitor compound C, and AMPK activator AICAR (10 ng to 1 µg i.c.v.) significantly increased blood glucose levels. Olanzapine (15 nmol), chlorpheniramine (10 µg), L-sulpiride (10 µg) and prazosin (3 µg) significantly increased phosphorylated AMPK in the hypothalamus of mice. CONCLUSION: These results suggest that olanzapine activates hypothalamic AMPK by antagonizing histamine H1 receptors, dopamine D2 receptors and α1-adrenoceptors, which induces hyperglycemia.

Olanzapine induces glucose intolerance through the activation of AMPK in the mouse hypothalamus.

Treatment with atypical antipsychotic drugs is known to increase the risk of glucose intolerance and diabetes. However, the mechanism of this effect is unclear. Since central adenosine 5'-monophosphate-activated protein kinase (AMPK) plays an important role in regulating nutrient homeostasis, the present study was performed to examine the involvement of central AMPK in the glucose intolerance induced by olanzapine, an atypical antipsychotic drug, in mice. Acute intraperitoneal treatment with olanzapine dose-dependently increased blood glucose levels in the glucose tolerance test. Intracerebroventricular administration of olanzapine also increased blood glucose levels in the glucose tolerance test. The glucose intolerance induced by both intraperitoneal and intracerebroventricular treatment with olanzapine was significantly attenuated by intracerebroventricular pretreatment with the AMPK inhibitor compound C. Intracerebroventricular treatment with the AMPK activator AICAR increased blood glucose levels in the glucose tolerance test, and this increase was inhibited by compound C. Moreover, the hypothalamic level of phosphorylated AMPK after glucose injection was significantly increased by intracerebroventricular pretreatment with olanzapine. Olanzapine did not affect plasma glucagon and insulin levels. Our results indicate that acute treatment with olanzapine causes glucose intolerance through the activation of hypothalamic AMPK. The present study suggests that the inhibition of central AMPK activity may have a therapeutic effect on the metabolic disturbance induced by atypical antipsychotic drugs.