Factors influencing job preferences of health workers providing obstetric care: results from discrete choice experiments in Malawi, Mozambique and Tanzania.

BACKGROUND: Task shifting from established health professionals to mid-level providers (MLPs) (professionals who undergo shorter training in specific procedures) is one key strategy for reducing maternal and neonatal deaths. This has resulted in a growth in cadre types providing obstetric care in low and middle-income countries. Little is known about the relative importance of the different factors in determining motivation and retention amongst these cadres. METHODS: This paper presents findings from large sample (1972 respondents) discrete choice experiments to examine the employment preferences of obstetric care workers across three east African countries. RESULTS: The strongest predictors of job choice were access to continuing professional development and the presence of functioning human resources management (transparent, accountable and consistent systems for staff support, supervision and appraisal). Consistent with similar works we find pay and allowances significantly positively related to utility, but financial rewards are not as fundamental a factor underlying employment preferences as many may have previously believed. Location (urban vs rural) had the smallest average effect on utility for job choice in all three countries. CONCLUSIONS: These findings are important in the context where efforts to address the human resources crisis have focused primarily on increasing salaries and incentives, as well as providing allowances to work in rural areas.

Postoperative outcome of caesarean sections and other major emergency obstetric surgery by clinical officers and medical officers in Malawi.

BACKGROUND: Clinical officers perform much of major emergency surgery in Malawi, in the absence of medical officers. The aim of this study was to validate the advantages and disadvantages of delegation of major obstetric surgery to non-doctors. METHODS: During a three month period, data from 2131 consecutive obstetric surgeries in 38 district hospitals in Malawi were collected prospectively. The interventions included caesarean sections alone and those that were combined with other interventions such as subtotal and total hysterectomy repair of uterine rupture and tubal ligation. All these surgeries were conducted either by clinical officers or by medical officers. RESULTS: During the study period, clinical officers performed 90% of all straight caesarean sections, 70% of those combined with subtotal hysterectomy, 60% of those combined with total hysterectomy and 89% of those combined with repair of uterine rupture. A comparable profile of patients was operated on by clinical officers and medical officers, respectively. Postoperative outcomes were almost identical in the two groups in terms of maternal general condition - both immediately and 24 hours postoperatively - and regarding occurrence of pyrexia, wound infection, wound dehiscence, need for re-operation, neonatal outcome or maternal death. CONCLUSIONS: Clinical officers perform the bulk of emergency obstetric operations at district hospitals in Malawi. The postoperative outcomes of their procedures are comparable to those of medical officers. Clinical officers constitute a crucial component of the health care team in Malawi for saving maternal and neonatal lives given the scarcity of physicians.

Up-skilling associate clinicians in Malawi in emergency obstetric, neonatal care and clinical leadership: the ETATMBA cluster randomised controlled trial.

BACKGROUND: The ETATMBA (Enhancing Training And Technology for Mothers and Babies in Africa) project-trained associate clinicians (ACs/clinical officers) as advanced clinical leaders in emergency obstetric and neonatal care. This trial aimed to evaluate the impact of training on obstetric health outcomes in Malawi. METHOD: A cluster randomised controlled trial with 14 districts of Malawi (8 intervention, 6 control) as units of randomisation. Intervention districts housed the 46 ACs who received the training programme. The primary outcome was district (health facility-based) perinatal mortality rates. Secondary outcomes included maternal mortality ratios, neonatal mortality rate, obstetric and birth variables. The study period was 2011-2013. Mortality rates/ratios were examined using an interrupted time series (ITS) to identify trends over time. RESULTS: The ITS reveals an improving trend in perinatal mortality across both groups, but better in the control group (intervention, effect -3.58, SE 2.65, CI (-9.85 to 2.69), p=0.20; control, effect -17.79, SE 6.83, CI (-33.95 to -1.64), p=0.03). Maternal mortality ratios are seen to have improved in intervention districts while worsening in the control districts (intervention, effect -38.11, SE 50.30, CI (-157.06 to 80.84), p=0.47; control, effect 11.55, SE 87.72, CI (-195.87 to 218.98), p=0.90). There was a 31% drop in neonatal mortality rate in intervention districts while in control districts, the rate rises by 2%. There are no significant differences in the other secondary outcomes. CONCLUSIONS: This is one of the first randomised studies looking at the effect of structured training on health outcomes in this setting. Notwithstanding a number of limitations, this study suggests that up-skilling this cadre is possible, and could impact positively on health outcomes. TRIAL REGISTRATION NUMBER: ISRCTN63294155; Results.

Too few staff, too many patients: a qualitative study of the impact on obstetric care providers and on quality of care in Malawi.

BACKGROUND: Shortages of staff have a significant and negative impact on maternal outcomes in low-income countries, but the impact on obstetric care providers in these contexts is less well documented. Despite the government of Malawi's efforts to increase the number of human resources for health, maternal mortality rates remain persistently high. Health workers' perceptions of insufficient staff or time to carry out their work can predict key variables concerning motivation and attrition, while the resulting sub-standard care and poor attitudes towards women dissuade women from facility-based delivery. Understanding the situation from the health worker perspective can inform policy options that may contribute to a better working environment for staff and improved quality of care for Malawi's women. METHODS: A qualitative research design, using critical incident interviews, was used to generate a deep and textured understanding of participants' experiences. Eligible participants had performed at least one of the emergency obstetric care signal functions (a) in the previous three months and had experienced a demotivating critical incident within the same timeframe. Data were analysed using NVivo software. RESULTS: Eighty-four interviews were conducted. Concerns about staff shortages and workload were key factors for over 40% of staff who stated their intention to leave their current post and for nearly two-thirds of the remaining health workers who were interviewed. The main themes emerging were: too few staff, too many patients; lack of clinical officers/doctors; inadequate obstetric skills; undermining performance and professionalism; and physical and psychological consequences for staff. Underlying factors were inflexible scheduling and staff allocations that made it impossible to deliver quality care. CONCLUSION: This study revealed the difficult circumstances under which maternity staff are operating and the professional and emotional toll this exacts. Systems failures and inadequate human resource management are key contributors to the gaps in provision of obstetric care and need to be addressed. Thoughtful strategies that match supply to demand, coupled with targeted efforts to support health workers, are necessary to mitigate the effects of working in this context and to improve the quality of obstetric care for women in Malawi.

Born too small: who survives in the public hospitals in Lilongwe, Malawi?

OBJECTIVE: Malawi has the highest estimated preterm birth rate in the world. The survival rate of these babies is not known. The main objective of this study was to demonstrate the short-term survival of infants with birth weight below 2500 g nursed in Bwaila Hospital, a district hospital, and the tertiary level Kamuzu Central Hospital (KCH) in Lilongwe. The specific objectives were to calculate birth weight specific survival rates, compare the two hospitals regarding the chances of survival and review the use of antenatal corticosteroids. DESIGN: 1496 babies were included prospectively in the study between June and November 2012. Survival was defined as discharge from the nursery or postnatal ward. RESULTS: Survival was 7% for extremely low birth weight infants, 52% for very low birth weight and 90% for low birth weight (1500-2499 g). There was a marked increase in survival from 1100 g. Survival was significantly higher in KCH only for babies weighing below 1200 g. The majority of deaths occurred within the first 3 days of life. Only 98 of the babies had a mother who had received antenatal corticosteroids. CONCLUSIONS: With the current resources, we suggest focusing efforts on preventing early neonatal deaths in low birth weight infants above 1100 g in the hospitals in Lilongwe. The coverage of antenatal steroids for mothers at risk of preterm delivery can be improved. Further studies are needed on the quality of the obstetric and neonatal care at the hospitals and how to reduce the high rate of preterm birth in Malawi.

Can training in advanced clinical skills in obstetrics, neonatal care and leadership, of non-physician clinicians in Malawi impact on clinical services improvements (the ETATMBA project): a process evaluation.

OBJECTIVES: The 'enhancing human resources and the use of appropriate technologies for maternal and perinatal survival in sub-Saharan Africa' (ETATMBA) project is training emergency obstetric and new-born care (EmONC) non-physician clinicians (NPCs) as advanced clinical leaders. Our objectives were to evaluate the implementation and changes to practice. DESIGN: A mixed methods process evaluation with the predominate methodology being qualitative. SETTING: Rural and urban hospitals in 8 of the 14 districts of northern and central Malawi. PARTICIPANTS: 54 EmONC NPCs with 3 years' plus experience. INTERVENTION: Training designed and delivered by clinicians from the UK and Malawi; it is a 2-year plus package of training (classroom, mentorship and assignments). RESULTS: We conducted 79 trainee interviews over three time points during the training, as well as a convenience sample of 10 colleagues, 7 district officers and 2 UK obstetricians. Trainees worked in a context of substantial variation in the rates of maternal and neonatal deaths between districts. Training reached trainees working across the target regions. For 46 trainees (8 dropped out of the course), dose delivered in terms of attendance was high and all 46 spent time working alongside an obstetrician. In early interviews trainees recalled course content unprompted indicating training had been received. Colleagues and district officers reported cascading of knowledge and initial changes in practice indicating early implementation. By asking trainees to describe actual cases we found they had implemented new knowledge and skills. These included life-saving interventions for postpartum haemorrhage and eclampsia. Trainees identified the leadership training as enabling them to confidently change their own practice and initiate change in their health facility. CONCLUSIONS: This process evaluation suggests that trainees have made positive changes in their practice. Clear impacts on maternal and perinatal mortality are yet to be elucidated.

What makes staff consider leaving the health service in Malawi?

BACKGROUND: Malawi faces a severe shortage of health workers, a factor that has contributed greatly to high maternal mortality in the country. Most clinical care is performed by mid-level providers (MLPs). While utilization of these cadres in providing health care is a solution to the current shortages, demotivating factors within the Malawian health system are pushing them into private, non-governmental, and other non-health related positions. This study aims to highlight these demotivating factors by exploring the critical aspects that influence MLPs' intention to leave their jobs. METHODS: This descriptive qualitative study formed part of the larger Health Systems Strengthening for Equity (HSSE) study. Data presented in this paper were collected in Malawi using the Critical Incident Analysis tool. Participants were asked to narrate an incident that had happened during the past three months which had made them seriously consider leaving their job. Data were subjected to thematic analysis using NVivo 8 software. RESULTS: Of the 84 respondents who participated in a Critical Incident Analysis interview, 58 respondents (69%) indicated they had experienced a demotivating incident in the previous three months that had made them seriously consider leaving their job. The most commonly cited critical factors were being treated unfairly or with disrespect, lack of recognition of their efforts, delays and inconsistencies in salary payments, lack of transparent processes and criteria for upgrading or promotion, and death of patients. CONCLUSION: Staff motivation and an enabling environment are crucial factors for retaining MLPs in the Malawian health system. This study revealed key 'tipping points' that drive staff to seriously consider leaving their jobs. Many of the factors underlying these critical incidents can be addressed by improved management practices and the introduction of fair and transparent policies. Managers need to be trained and equipped with effective managerial skills and staff should have access to equal opportunities for upgrading and promotion. There is need for continuous effort to mobilize the resources needed to fill gaps in basic equipment, supplies, and medicine, as these are critical in creating an enabling environment for MLPs.

District health managers' perceptions of supervision in Malawi and Tanzania.

BACKGROUND: Mid-level cadres are being used to address human resource shortages in many African contexts, but insufficient and ineffective human resource management is compromising their performance. Supervision plays a key role in performance and motivation, but is frequently characterised by periodic inspection and control, rather than support and feedback to improve performance. This paper explores the perceptions of district health management teams in Tanzania and Malawi on their role as supervisors and on the challenges to effective supervision at the district level. METHODS: This qualitative study took place as part of a broader project, "Health Systems Strengthening for Equity: The Power and Potential of Mid-Level Providers". Semi-structured interviews were conducted with 20 district health management team personnel in Malawi and 37 council health team members in Tanzania. The interviews covered a range of human resource management issues, including supervision and performance assessment, staff job descriptions and roles, motivation and working conditions. RESULTS: Participants displayed varying attitudes to the nature and purpose of the supervision process. Much of the discourse in Malawi centred on inspection and control, while interviewees in Tanzania were more likely to articulate a paradigm characterised by support and improvement. In both countries, facility level performance metrics dominated. The lack of competency-based indicators or clear standards to assess individual health worker performance were considered problematic. Shortages of staff, at both district and facility level, were described as a major impediment to carrying out regular supervisory visits. Other challenges included conflicting and multiple responsibilities of district health team staff and financial constraints. CONCLUSION: Supervision is a central component of effective human resource management. Policy level attention is crucial to ensure a systematic, structured process that is based on common understandings of the role and purpose of supervision. This is particularly important in a context where the majority of staff are mid-level cadres for whom regulation and guidelines may not be as formalised or well-developed as for traditional cadres, such as registered nurses and medical doctors. Supervision needs to be adequately resourced and supported in order to improve performance and retention at the district level.

The critical role of supervision in retaining staff in obstetric services: a three country study.

Millennium Development Goal (MDG) 5 commits us to reducing maternal mortality rates by three quarters and MDG 4 commits us to reducing child mortality by two-thirds between 1990 and 2015. In order to reach these goals, greater access to basic emergency obstetric care (EmOC) as well as comprehensive EmOC which includes safe Caesarean section, is needed.. The limited capacity of health systems to meet demand for obstetric services has led several countries to utilize mid-level cadres as a substitute to more extensively trained and more internationally mobile healthcare workers. Although this does provide greater capacity for service delivery, concern about the performance and motivation of these workers is emerging. We propose that poor leadership characterized by inadequate and unstructured supervision underlies much of the dissatisfaction and turnover that has been shown to exist amongst these mid-level healthcare workers and indeed health workers more generally. To investigate this, we conducted a large-scale survey of 1,561 mid-level cadre healthcare workers (health workers trained for shorter periods to perform specific tasks e.g. clinical officers) delivering obstetric care in Malawi, Tanzania, and Mozambique. Participants indicated the primary supervision method used in their facility and we assessed their job satisfaction and intentions to leave their current workplace. In all three countries we found robust evidence indicating that a formal supervision process predicted high levels of job satisfaction and low intentions to leave. We find no evidence that facility level factors modify the link between supervisory methods and key outcomes. We interpret this evidence as strongly supporting the need to strengthen leadership and implement a framework and mechanism for systematic supportive supervision. This will promote better job satisfaction and improve the retention and performance of obstetric care workers, something which has the potential to improve maternal and neonatal outcomes in the countdown to 2015.

The impact of training non-physician clinicians in Malawi on maternal and perinatal mortality: a cluster randomised controlled evaluation of the enhancing training and appropriate technologies for mothers and babies in Africa (ETATMBA) project.

BACKGROUND: Maternal mortality in much of sub-Saharan Africa is very high whereas there has been a steady decline in over the past 60 years in Europe. Perinatal mortality is 12 times higher than maternal mortality accounting for about 7 million neonatal deaths; many of these in sub-Saharan countries. Many of these deaths are preventable. Countries, like Malawi, do not have the resources nor highly trained medical specialists using complex technologies within their healthcare system. Much of the burden falls on healthcare staff other than doctors including non-physician clinicians (NPCs) such as clinical officers, midwives and community health-workers. The aim of this trial is to evaluate a project which is training NPCs as advanced leaders by providing them with skills and knowledge in advanced neonatal and obstetric care. Training that will hopefully be cascaded to their colleagues (other NPCs, midwives, nurses). METHODS/DESIGN: This is a cluster randomised controlled trial with the unit of randomisation being the 14 districts of central and northern Malawi (one large district was divided into two giving an overall total of 15). Eight districts will be randomly allocated the intervention. Within these eight districts 50 NPCs will be selected and will be enrolled on the training programme (the intervention). Primary outcome will be maternal and perinatal (defined as until discharge from health facility) mortality. Data will be harvested from all facilities in both intervention and control districts for the lifetime of the project (3-4 years) and comparisons made. In addition a process evaluation using both quantitative and qualitative (e.g. interviews) will be undertaken to evaluate the intervention implementation. DISCUSSION: Education and training of NPCs is a key to improving healthcare for mothers and babies in countries like Malawi. Some of the challenges faced are discussed as are the potential limitations. It is hoped that the findings from this trial will lead to a sustainable improvement in healthcare and workforce development and training. TRIAL REGISTRATION: ISRCTN63294155.

Expected to deliver: alignment of regulation, training, and actual performance of emergency obstetric care providers in Malawi and Tanzania.

OBJECTIVE: Policy, regulation, training, and support for cadres adopting tasks and roles outside their historical domain have lagged behind the practical shift in service-delivery on the ground. The Health Systems Strengthening for Equity (HSSE) project sought to assess the alignment between national policy and regulation, preservice training, district level expectations, and clinical practice of cadres providing some or all components of emergency obstetric care (EmOC) in Malawi and Tanzania. METHODS: A mixed methods approach was used, including key informant interviews, a survey of District Health Management Teams, and a survey of health providers employed at a representative sample of health facilities. RESULTS: A lack of alignment between national policy and regulation, training, and clinical practice was observed in both countries, particularly for cadres with less preservice training; a closer alignment was found between district level expectations and reported clinical practice. There is ineffective use of cadres that are trained and authorized to provide EmOC, but who are not delivering care, especially assisted vaginal delivery. CONCLUSION: Better alignment between policy and practice, and support and training, and more efficient utilization of clinical staff are needed to achieve the quality health care for which the Malawian and Tanzanian health ministries and governments are accountable.

Mid-level health providers: a promising resource.

Mid-level health providers (MLP) are health workers trained at a higher education institution for at least a total of 2-3 years, and authorized and regulated to work autonomously to diagnose, manage and treat illness, disease and impairments, as well as engage in preventive and promotive care. Their role has been progressively expanding and receiving attention, in particular in low- and middle-income countries, as a strategy to overcome health workforce challenges and improve access to essential health services and achieve the health related targets of the Millennium Development Goals. Evidence, although limited and imperfect, shows that, where MLP are adequately trained, supported and integrated coherently in the health system, they have the potential to improve distribution of health workers and enhance equitable access to health services, while retaining quality standards comparable to, if not exceeding, those of services provided by physicians. Significant challenges however exist in terms of the marginalization and more limited management support of MLP in health systems. The expansion of MLP should have priority among the policy options considered by countries facing shortage and maldistribution challenges. Improved education, supervision, management and regulation practices and integration in the health system have the potential to maximize the benefits from the use of these cadres.

Trabajadores de salud de nivel intermedio: un recurso prometedor / Mid-level health providers: a promising resource

Los trabajadores de salud de nivel intermedio (TSNI) son trabajadores capacitados en una institución de educación superior durante al menos dos a tres años, quienes son autorizados y regulados para trabajar de forma autónoma para el diagnóstico, control y tratamiento de dolencias, enfermedades y discapacidades, así como participar en la prevención y promoción de la salud. Su papel se ha ampliado progresivamente y ha recibido atención en particular en países de ingresos bajos y medios, como parte de una estrategia para superar los desafíos del personal sanitario, mejorar el acceso a servicios básicos de salud y lograr objetivos relacionados con los Objetivos del Desarrollo del Milenio. La evidencia, aunque limitada e imperfecta, muestra que donde los TSNI están debidamente capacitados, apoyados y coherentemente integrados en el sistema de salud, tienen el potencial para mejorar la distribución de los trabajadores de la salud y el acceso equitativo a los servicios de salud, manteniendo -si no sobrepasando- los estándares de calidad comparables a los servicios prestados por el personal médico. Sin embargo, existen desafíos importantes en términos de la marginación y el limitado apoyo a la gestión de los TSNI en los sistemas de salud. La expansión de los TSNI debe tener prioridad entre las opciones de política consideradas por países que enfrentan problemas de escasez y desigualdad en la distribución de recursos humanos. Una mejor educación, supervisión, administración y regulación de las prácticas y la integración en el sistema de salud tienen el potencial de maximizar los beneficios de la utilización de este personal.

Mid-level health providers (MLP) are health workers trained at a higher education institution for at least a total of 2-3 years, and authorized and regulated to work autonomously to diagnose, manage and treat illness, disease and impairments, as well as engage in preventive and promotive care. Their role has been progressively expanding and receiving attention, in particular in low- and middle-income countries, as a strategy to overcome health workforce challenges and improve access to essential health services and achieve the health related targets of the Millennium Development Goals. Evidence, although limited and imperfect, shows that, where MLP are adequately trained, supported and integrated coherently in the health system, they have the potential to improve distribution of health workers and enhance equitable access to health services, while retaining quality standards comparable to, if not exceeding, those of services provided by physicians. Significant challenges however exist in terms of the marginalization and more limited management support of MLP in health systems. The expansion of MLP should have priority among the policy options considered by countries facing shortage and maldistribution challenges. Improved education, supervision, management and regulation practices and integration in the health system have the potential to maximize the benefits from the use of these cadres.

Postoperative outcome of caesarean sections and other major emergency obstetric surgery by clinical officers and medical officers in Malawi.

BACKGROUND: Clinical officers perform much of major emergency surgery in Malawi, in the absence of medical officers. The aim of this study was to validate the advantages and disadvantages of delegation of major obstetric surgery to non-doctors. METHODS: During a three month period, data from 2131 consecutive obstetric surgeries in 38 district hospitals in Malawi were collected prospectively. The interventions included caesarean sections alone and those that were combined with other interventions such as subtotal and total hysterectomy repair of uterine rupture and tubal ligation. All these surgeries were conducted either by clinical officers or by medical officers. RESULTS: During the study period, clinical officers performed 90% of all straight caesarean sections, 70% of those combined with subtotal hysterectomy, 60% of those combined with total hysterectomy and 89% of those combined with repair of uterine rupture. A comparable profile of patients was operated on by clinical officers and medical officers, respectively. Postoperative outcomes were almost identical in the two groups in terms of maternal general condition - both immediately and 24 hours postoperatively - and regarding occurrence of pyrexia, wound infection, wound dehiscence, need for re-operation, neonatal outcome or maternal death. CONCLUSION: Clinical officers perform the bulk of emergency obstetric operations at district hospitals in Malawi. The postoperative outcomes of their procedures are comparable to those of medical officers. Clinical officers constitute a crucial component of the health care team in Malawi for saving maternal and neonatal lives given the scarcity of physicians.

A serological study of the role of Mycoplasma genitalium in pelvic inflammatory disease and ectopic pregnancy.

OBJECTIVES: Establishing a connection between the emerging urogenital tract pathogen Mycoplasma genitalium and upper genital tract infection in women would be of major importance. The aim of this study was to evaluate the association between M genitalium antibodies and pelvic inflammatory disease (PID) and ectopic pregnancy (EP) using a lipid-associated membrane protein-enzyme immunoassay (LAMP-EIA) method. METHODS: The LAMP-EIA was used to analyse sera obtained from patients with clinical PID and EP collected in Sweden between February 1984 and April 1986. Sera from healthy pregnant women (Ctrl) collected during approximately the same period were used as controls. Evidence of chlamydial infection was investigated using a commercial anti-Chlamydia trachomatis EIA assay. RESULTS: The LAMP-EIA was specific as determined by a lack of cross-reactivity with other Mycoplasma species. The LAMP-EIA showed that 17% (33/193) of the PID patients were M genitalium positive as compared to 18% (15/82) of the EP patients and 15% (36/246) of the Ctrl women. No significant association could be demonstrated between M genitalium antibodies and PID or EP in crude or adjusted logistic regression. Antibodies against C trachomatis were demonstrated in 54% of the PID and 57% of the EP patients, and also in 37% of the Ctrl women, showing a statistically significant association. CONCLUSION: No statistically significant association between PID or EP and M genitalium antibodies could be found using the LAMP-EIA, although a slight tendency toward association was found when focusing on younger individuals.